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PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 



Laws Governing the Human System 



NATHAN ALLEN m.d.,ll.d. 

MEMBER OF 

THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, THE AMERICAN ACADEMY 

OF MEDICINE, THE AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION, 

THE MASSACHUSETTS MEDICAL SOCIETY. 



BOSTON 1888 
LEE AND SHEPARD Publishers 

IO MILK STREET NEXT THE " OLD SOUTH MEETING HOUSE " 

NEW YORK 
CHARLES T. DILLINGHAM 

718 AND 720 BROADWAY 







COPYRIGHT, 1888, BY NATHAN ALLEN 



LOWELL, MASS. 

VOX POPULI PRESS. 

S. W. HUSE & CO. 



TO 

EDWARD HITCHCOCK a. m., m. d. 

Who, as Professor of Physical Culture in Amherst College 
for twenty-seven years, has done much to improve the 
health of students in our colleges and send them forth 
to their life-work with strong bodies and sound minds; 

AND TO THE MEMORY OF 

TOflltam gluQustxis Steams B. &., S&. B. 

President of Amherst College from 1854 till his decease in 
1876 — to young men he was a pattern of refined and 
noble sentiment, of urbane manners, of varied and thor- 
ough scholarship, and of high christian character. 



Page 342. 



Introduction 



V^NHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT is selected as a 
y^ title for this work. Almost every article it 
* contains has some reference to the development 
of the body, or the laws that govern the human 
system. For twenty-five years the writer has pub- 
lished a large number of articles in journals, maga- 
zines, and in pamphlet form. These papers have been 
of a practical character and had reference to some im- 
provement or reform in the state of society. At the 
time of publication several of these papers attracted 
much attention, and were favorably noticed by the 
press, both in this country and in Great Britain. They 
have called forth a large correspondence with the 
writer, and a demand for several of these papers, 
from a distance, which still continues. 

Some of these papers are out of print, and others 
are so scattered, or lost sight of, that they can not 
be found. Questions were discussed in these papers 
which were somewhat new, and upon which there 
were differences of opinion, and still other questions 
which were in advance of the times. It seems desir- 
able that in some form these papers should be 



6 INTRODUCTION. 

reproduced. Besides, the writer maintains that there 
are new and important principles in physiology, 
which were brought before the public, that should be 
more thoroughly discussed, as well as their various 
applications pointed out. It is only in this way that 
the truth can be ascertained, and new principles be- 
come settled. In justice to the writer, and with a 
view to the public benefit, good judges familiar with 
these papers advise that they be reproduced, in part, 
or in substance, so as to be made available. Instead 
of making a compilation or collection of papers, the 
writer has virtually made a new book, by writing 
several new papers, by re-writing others, and intro- 
ducing only the better part of a few long articles. 

In submitting this book to the public, two explana- 
tions are deemed necessary. First: The frequent 
use of, and reference to, physiology. This science is 
not only important and comprehensive, but is a 
modern science; is comparatively in its infancy, in 
respect to many of its applications. No estimate can 
be made of the great advantages in the way of edu- 
cation and human welfare that are yet to be derived 
from this science. Second: In stating and explaining 
certain views in the different papers, there is some 
repetition which, for a correct and full understanding 
of the subject could not well be avoided. As these 
principles were new and very important this course 
seemed justifiable. 



Contents, 



and 



Biographical Sketch 

Physical Culture in Amherst College 

Remarks on Early Education . 

Education of Girls connected with Growth 

Health 

True Basis of Education .... 
Normal Standard of Physiology 

Physical Development 

The Law of Longevity .... 
Duties of Medical Men .... 
Sanitary Science: Its History, and its Relation to 

Medicine and the Medical Profession 
Prevention of Crime .... 
Changes in New England Population 
Hereditary Influences . 
The New England Family . 
Prevention of Insanity 
Vital Statistics . 
The Law of Human Increase 
Heredity, a Source of Pauperism 
Improvement in Domestic Animals 
Physical Degeneracy . 



9 

27 

3 1 
45 
49 
57 
61 
76 

86 
108 
116 
i34 
i43 
170 
181 
188 
203 
208 
210 



8 



CONTENTS. 



The Human Body: its Relations to Civilization 

Intermarriage of Relatives 

College Sports 

Mental Philosophy : its Connection with Medicine 
Normal Standard for Motherhood 



238 
241 
262 
266 
292 



APPENDIX. 



Law of Human Increase . 

The Relative Increase in Population 

Physical Culture .... 

Lessons on Population 

Prevention of Disease, Insanity, and 

Population and Civilization 

Report on Lunacy 

Vital Statistics .... 

Consanguineous Marriages . 

Birth-rate Dependent upon Organization 

Sanitary Science .... 

Marriage Relation 

Wanted : a Wet-nurse . 

Physical Degeneracy . 

Physical Organization : its Effects 

William A. Stearns 



Pauperism 



329 
3 2 9 
33° 
33* 
332 
333 
333 
334 
334 
335 
336 
337 
337 
339 
34o 
342 



Biographical Sketch. 

[Taken from the New England Medical Journal (monthly), February, 1884.] 



1UATHAN ALLEN, M. D., was born in Princeton, 
4 Mass., April 25, 18 13. His parents, Moses and Me- 
hitable (Oliver) Allen, were both born in Barre, in the 
same state. The Allen patronymic is borne by numerous 
families in the Old and the New world; but that from 
which Doctor Allen is a lineal descendant, was Walter 
Allen, one of the original proprietors of Old Newbury, 
and who died in Charlestown, Mass., in 1673. 

The early years of Doctor Allen were spent on the 
parental farm. Here he was habituated to all kinds of 
exercise in farm-work, and consequently received the best 
possible preparation in health and constitution for future 
activities. At the age of seventeen he commenced aca- 
demical studies, and, matriculating at Amherst college in 
1832, he graduated in 1836. Having decided to enter the 
medical profession, he determined to avail himself of the 
best advantages which the country afforded. Accordingly 
he repaired to Philadelphia, where he spent four years in 
the study of medicine and attendance upon lectures. 

During his residence in this city he was employed a 
part of his time in proof-reading, and in the preparation 
of material, connected with medical and physiological 
works, being published at the celebrated press of Adam 
Waldie. While engaged here he was brought into per- 
sonal contact and correspondence with many distinguished 
individuals. Among these were Dr. Charles Cadwell, of 



10 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Kentucky, the profoundest physiologist of his day ; the 
Hon. Horace Mann, of Massachusetts, who as an educator 
has never been excelled ; and also with George Combe, 
Esq., of Edinburgh (then on a visit to Philadelphia), un- 
equaled as a practical philosopher. 

Here, while a medical student, Doctor Allen learned 
something respecting the use of the pen and the power 
of the press, as well as the importance of every person 
thinking for himself. In the spring of 1841 he gradu- 
ated "M. D.," presenting as his thesis, the "Connection 
of Mental Philosophy with Medicine." This essay was 
published in pamphlet form, and, while it attracted much 
attention at the time, it indicated the department of sci- 
entific investigation in which he has since become distin- 
guished. In the autumn of 1841 Doctor Allen settled in 
Lowell, Mass., where he has since resided. Soon after 
commencing medical practice his attention was arrested 
by the great difference in the birth-rate between the native 
New England women, and the English, the Irish, the 
Scotch, the Canadian French, and the German ; and also 
by the small number of children in a New England family, 
compared with what it was fifty or a hundred years before. 
The size of the family, including all married couples, is 
now on an average only about one-third as large as it once 
was ; and the birth-rate of the Irish, English, Scotch, and 
German is, on an average, nearly twice as large as that of 
the strictly native New Englander. From many years of 
study and observation he became convinced that the "arts 
of prevention and destruction " were not sufficient in all 
cases to account for this great difference in birth-rate, but 
that there must be some other primary cause — that there 
might exist some difference or change in the organization 
itself to account for it. 

This inquiry led to a wide range of studies, such as cen- 
sus and registration reports, works on population, vital 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. II 

statistics, and obstetrics. It also led to a careful observa- 
tion in medical practice, of the differences in the physical 
development of women, and to the peculiarities in the 
physiology of different races and nations. As a result of 
these inquiries and reflections, covering a period of over 
twenty years, Doctor Allen became thoroughly convinced 
that Nature, or the Creator of all things, has established a 
great general law of propagation applicable to all organic 
life. He maintains that this is virtually a new discovery, 
and that it involves a most important principle in psychol- 
ogy and physiology. 

As applied to human beings, it may be denned as fol- 
lows : This law is based upon a normal or a perfect stand- 
ard of the human system, where every organ of the body 
is complete in structure and performs fully all its natural 
functions. This principle implies that the body is 
symmetrical and well developed in all its parts, so that 
each organ acts in harmony with all the others. Accord- 
ing to this principle, the nearer the organization approaches 
that standard, and the laws of propagation are strictly ob- 
served, the greater will be the number of children, and the 
better will be their organization for securing the great ob- 
jects of life. On the other hand, if the organization is 
carried to an extreme development in either direction, viz., 
a predominance of nerve tissue, or of a low animal nature, 
the tendency in such families or races is gradually to de- 
crease, and ultimately to become extinct. Thus people 
enjoying the very highest civilization, or living in the low- 
est savage state, do not multiply rapidly. 

This law of population is strictly the normal standard of 
physiology, upon which other important principles are 
based. It is the standard of perfect health. In deviations 
from it are found weaknesses, diseases, and the abnormal 
classes, such as the blind, the deaf-and-dumb, the "feeble- 
minded, the insane, etc. This principle furnishes the true 



12 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

law of longevity. The more perfect the organization is, 
and the more harmoniously all the functions of the body 
are performed, in accordance with the laws of health, the 
longer will be human life. 

By means of this law of propagation, the mooted ques- 
tions connected with the intermarriage of relations are 
easily explained. It also furnishes in physiology a stand- 
ard upon which the laws of inheritance have their basis 
and solution. Without such a standard or general princi- 
ple all these laws are enigmas. This law of physiology 
furnishes also the standard or model of beauty of the 
human form, so much sought after and admired by the 
Greeks, as well as the most refined and cultivated people 
of all nations. This law furnishes the key to the doctrine 
discussed by some writers, — -"the survival of the fittest," 
— that among all peoples and nations there is a class which 
overcomes all others. This is nothing more or less than 
the doctrine of " natural selection," which in a few years 
has obtained so great notoriety. 

But the investigations of Doctor Allen have not been 
confined exclusively to this law of population, but have 
taken in a wide range of topics, such as physical culture 
and degeneracy, insanity and state medicine, heredity and 
hygiene, education and temperance, divorce and the 
family institution, etc. etc. All the publications of Doc- 
tor Allen number over thirty distinct papers or pamphlets, 
and if brought together would make two large octavo 
volumes. Some of these papers are elaborate essays, and 
appeared in the leading quarterly journals and reviews ; 
other papers were read before learned societies or scien- 
tific associations. 

Besides set papers carefully prepared, Doctor Allen has 
contributed largely to the local and religious press, and 
has written numerous reports for public institutions as 
well as charitable associations. His writings have been 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 1 3 

widely quoted by the press both in this country and in 
Europe ; and several of his papers have been republished 
entire in Great Britain. Some of them have been favora- 
bly noticed, not only by the leading medical journals in 
this country, but by such journals abroad as the Medico- 
Chirurgical Review, Dr. Forbes Winslow's Psychological 
Journal, the London Medical Times and Gazette, the Lon- 
don Lancet, and the Glasgow Medical Journal 

Doctor Allen has held important positions of trust and 
responsibility. In 1856 he was chosen by the legislature 
a trustee of Amherst college, and took a leading part in 
establishing in that institution the department of physical 
culture, which is accomplishing a grand work for the 
health of its students. Dr. Edward Hitchcock, professor 
of hygiene and physical education in the college for 
twenty-five years, in a printed report pays Doctor Allen 
the following compliment : " The title of this department 
was proposed by Dr. Nathan Allen, of Lowell, one of the 
trustees of the college — and of her graduates — of which 
he has been an early and long-tried friend, and a most de- 
voted and faithful guardian of this department, of which 
he may well be styled the godfather." 

In 1864 Doctor Allen was appointed by Gov. John A. 
Andrew a member of the Massachusetts State Board of 
Charities, and by re-appointments served throughout the 
entire existence (fifteen years) of the board. Being chair- 
man part of the time, he contributed more or less to its 
annual reports, which have a standard value. The follow- 
ing extract from its fourteenth report is of special and 
permanent interest, and commends itself to the careful 
thought of the clergy, the political economist, the medical 
profession, the legislator, and all other classes whose 
thought and action have influence upon the body politic. 
He said : "No fact is better established in science than 
that there is a most intimate mental, as well as physical, 



14 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

relation between the parent and the child — between each 
generation and the succeeding one. This relation has 
been well expressed in the proverbs, — ' What is bred in 
the bone can not be whipt out of the flesh,' and 'Like be- 
gets like.' The hereditary relation has, we believe, a far 
greater agency in producing social evils and vices than has 
generally been conceived. This relation extends, by trans- 
mission, not only to the form of the body and the features 
of the countenance, but to every part of the system, — to 
the quality of the blood, — especially to those vital organs 
which give stamina of constitution and beget mental pre- 
dispositions. Whatever agencies, therefore, are calculated 
to injure the body, or deprave the mind; to incapacitate 
an individual for self-support, or make him a corrupter of 
others, should certainly be exposed by the guardians of 
public charity." 

In 1872 Doctor Allen visited Europe. He went as a 
delegate, commissioned by Governor Washburn, to the 
International Congress, which met in London to consider 
the matter of reform in prisons and other correctional 
institutions. Doctor Allen is connected with numerous 
medical and scientific associations, and occupies public 
positions of trust and honor in the place of his residence 
which we pass by unnoticed. 

Doctor Allen's distinction arises mainly from his orig- 
inal researches into the laws and changes of population. 
His fame for the present and the future must rest chiefly, 
— first, upon his investigations into the changes of popu- 
lation in New England, — that this originates primarily 
from a change in physical organization, — and secondly, on 
the establishment of this fact, — the principle is not local, 
but there must exist a great universal law of human in- 
crease, extending to all peoples and races throughout the 
world. 

When he first published some statistics showing the 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. I 5 

decrease of the birth-rate in New England, compared 
with what it once was, and to contrast this with the in- 
creased birth-rate among the foreign population, these 
statistics surprised the public, and some were disposed to 
throw ridicule upon them. But further statistics and 
sound reasoning soon converted the ridicule into expressed 
alarm, and directed attention to the causes for this decline 
in the birth-rate of the old Puritan families. 

Doctor Allen attributes it to various sources, such as 
educational pressure, fondness for mental rather than 
physical labor, too high a standard of living, etc. ; pro- 
ducing an undue development of brain and nerve-tissue 
compared with other parts of the body. If a change of 
organization affects increase of numbers ; if the tissues of 
the human system, when carried to an extreme develop- 
ment in any one direction, tend to extinction, or if there 
is a normal standard of organization better than all others 
for propagation, and upon which a general law of increase 
is based, it involves fundamental principles in physiology 
of vast importance. It may for the present attract little 
attention and have a slow growth, but, if true, it must in 
process of time be universally recognized and have a pow- 
erful influence. Language can not express the value and 
advantage of such a law. Inasmuch as it holds in its 
destiny the highest welfare of the human race, its benefits 
can not be inferior to those derived from the laws of 
gravitation and electricity, which have to do mainly with 
material things. Investigation and discussion will in time 
determine here, as elsewhere, what is truth. And though 
the public may at present look with distrust on this new 
doctrine, and some may regard its advocate as an " alarm- 
ist," yet if proved to be a fundamental law in physiology, 
history will do him full justice. 

The writings of Doctor Allen have already obtained 
quite a notoriety. His essays on population have for years 



1 6 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

attracted attention in France and Germany, and have often 
been quoted in Great Britain. And there are few men in 
the medical profession in this country whose writings have 
been quoted more generally by the press, or been referred 
to as authority in works having a large circulation. Not 
long since his alma mater honored him with LL. D., for 
his public services and in recognition of his original 
researches into the history and changes of population in 
New England. If the doctrines he has enunciated, in ref- 
erence to physical development and human increase, shall 
prove true, higher honors are sure to come, and, in time, 
a far greater reputation awaits him. 



EDUCATIONAL. 



Physical Culture in Amherst College. 



I " T MOST successful experiment of combining physical 
exercises with mental culture has been made at this 
institution. So important is this experiment deemed in 
all its bearings that a full sketch of it is here given. 

It is twenty-eight years since gymnastic exercises were 
first introduced into Amherst college as a distinct depart- 
ment of education. It was an important event, not only 
in this institution, but in the history of educational mat- 
ters. Certain principles were then discussed and adopted 
which have had great influence in making the experiment 
there a success. These principles are fundamental, and 
should be kept constantly in view in all attempts to im- 
prove physical organization connected with education. 

At the annual meeting of the trustees of Amherst col- 
lege in i860, the writer was appointed chairman of a com- 
mittee to consider and recommend a plan and regulations 
for the government of this new department ; and having 
served every year since on the " gymnasium committee," 
he is quite familiar with the origin and history of this 
movement. The questions successfully settled here will 
apply to every similar institution. 

One of the first questions which confronted us in this 
enterprise was that the trustees and faculty of a college 
had no right, in introducing gymnastic exercises, to make 
them compulsory, — that all students must engage in them. 
It was said that all such exercises elsewhere had always 
been and were voluntary, and not made a necessary part 



1 8 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

of the curriculum of an institution ; that students did not 
come to college to have their bodies trained, but to edu- 
cate their minds. The answer was, if this education could 
not be prosecuted so successfully, nor the highest standard 
of scholarship be reached, without proper exercise of the 
body and the possession of good health, such exercise 
should certainly be required. 

As the trustees made the laws of the college, and were 
for the time being the guardians of the students, they must 
know better than these pupils or their parents what kinds 
of exercise were best adapted for their highest welfare 
and improvement. Lessons in mathematics and the lan- 
guages are made compulsory, and if it is found that a cer- 
tain training of the body enables the student to do this 
work easier and better, and by the same course he would 
maintain good health through college, this training of the 
body should by all means be commanded. 

The second question was, in order to make these 
exercises successful and permanent, we must give them 
character. It was understood that previously gymnasi- 
ums, manual-labor schools, and attempts at physical edu- 
cation generally, had failed, but there were good reasons 
for it. One was, the manner in which it had been carried 
on was not adapted to develop and train the whole body 
in accordance with physiological laws. Another reason 
was, that not sufficient importance had been attached to 
this kind of education by trustees and managers of insti- 
tutions, by teachers, by the press, and public opinion 
generally. 

The movers in this new department at Amherst de- 
termined to organize and start it in a manner to show that 
they regarded it of the very highest importance — not 
inferior to any other in college. The first step was to 
place at its head a thoroughly educated physician, who 
should be a member of the faculty — equal in standing to 



PHYSICAL CULTURE IN AMHERST COLLEGE. 1 9 

any other teacher or professor in the institution. He 
should have the whole charge, not only of the gymnasium 
and its exercises, but he should be a teacher of anatomy and 
physiology, of hygiene and physical culture. Besides, he 
should have a general oversight of the health of students ; 
should have a watchful care of them at all hours, and 
caution them against overwork in study, as well as all 
irregular habits. In case a student was feeling unwell, or 
complained of sickness of any kind, he could freely con- 
sult this teacher as though a family physician. Thus by 
having a living teacher at the head, who is a member of 
the faculty and has charge of the health of students, it 
was intended to give this department the same position 
and prominence as any other branch of study. Still 
further: in making up the merit-roll of every student, of 
his rank in the class, this branch was to come into the 
account — his attendance, his deportment, his interest, and 
the improvement from the exercises as far as it could be 
ascertained. In case a student had an organic difficulty 
of the heart or lungs, or any other physical weakness that 
disabled him from going safely through with all the exer- 
cises required, he would be readily excused by the pro- 
fessor. No one could judge of this so well as a teacher 
of physiology. At the same time, if a student in other 
departments of the college wanted to get rid of any regular 
exercise, or get leave of absence, claiming to have some 
infirmity, to be sick, this medical teacher could easily 
settle the matter. 

KINDS OF EXERCISE. 

The third question to be settled was what series of 
exercises would be adapted to produce the best results 
in a college-course of study. The immediate object was 
to exercise all parts of the body systematically, and in 
such a variety of ways that the student should maintain 



20 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

uniformly good health, and the whole system — including 
the brain — be brought into the best possible working 
condition. Physiology, as well as experience, teaches that 
what are called "light gymnastics" are best adapted for 
this purpose. 

In settling the kind of exercise, this depends upon what 
you want to accomplish. If you want to make expert ball- 
players, or boat-rowers, or train the body to excel in other 
out-door sports and games, particular muscles or parts of 
the body must be exercised for this express purpose. But 
in an institution made up of large numbers, confined in 
close quarters, all engaged in hard study, and wanting to 
make the most of their time, it is found that light gym- 
nastic exercises, accompanied with music, and systemati- 
cally practised a half hour or so every day, work best. 
At the same time, connected with them, other exercises, 
such as marching, running, or singing of a sportive char- 
acter, should be practised at times for amusement and 
recreation. 

There is still another class demanding special personal at- 
tention. Suppose students come to college with a physical 
system not well balanced — and there are many of this 
character — some one part or organ weak and liable to 
disease. This, by careful examination, can be easily de- 
tected. As in a college, or any regular course of study, 
great and continuous strain must be made upon the body, 
it is highly important that this weak part should be known 
and strengthened. The highest measure of health is 
where the whole physical system is well balanced — where 
all the organs are perfect, or nearly so, in structure, and 
each performs its own legitimate function. This is the 
highest or normal standard of health. 

Now, by special physical exercise much can be done to 
change and improve distinct parts of the body in this 
direction. But it will be seen at once that such special 



PHYSICAL CULTURE IN AMHERST COLLEGE. 21 

personal exercises can not be reduced to a system for all 
indiscriminately to practise. This is individual work and 
must be a specialty in physical training. At the same 
time, light gymnastic exercises are calculated to help these 
personal weaknesses, or this defective organization, by 
improving the general health. These two systems of 
physical culture are both good in their place. 

The question may be asked, What relation do the regu- 
lar gymnastic exercises hold to out-door sports ? We 
answer, as auxiliaries, as helpers, but not as substitutes ; 
the objects are very different. Gymnastics are intended 
to exercise all the muscles in the body, and to improve the 
general health and strength ; while ball-playing, boat- 
rowing, and out-door sports call into exercise chiefly par- 
ticular muscles and movements. Gymnastic exercises are 
calculated to promote a harmony, a balance of action and 
strength throughout every part of the body, while these 
sports increase the size and strength of certain portions 
of the body disproportionately to other parts. 

Each class has its own specific benefits. There can be 
no question, however, but the interest and zeal in carrying 
on physical exercises of any one kind tend to increase it 
in all others ; especially where there is no competition. 
In gymnastics there is less danger of injury to the body, 
and far less risk to good morals. If these out-door sports 
are properly conducted, — not carried to extreme, — they 
may prove beneficial to students of all classes ; but at the 
same time, there is great danger of their abuse. After 
all, light gymnastics are altogether the best physical exer- 
cise for students in literary institutions. The danger is 
of carrying out-door sports and games too far, of consum- 
ing upon them too much time, of diverting attention from 
study, and creating an unpleasant competition. 

That Amherst college has taken the lead in physical 
training and instruction, in respect to the laws of health, 



22 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

there can be no question; and that, also, great benefits 
have been derived from this course. Before presenting 
some facts bearing on this point, we give the testimony of 
an individual who ought to be a competent judge. Says 
President Eliot, of Harvard university: "It is to Amherst 
college that the colleges of the country are indebted for a 
demonstration of the proper mode of organizing the de- 
partment of physical culture." 

It can, we believe, be safely stated no that other large 
literary institution in this country, or in Europe, has for a 
quarter of a century conducted physical education so suc- 
cessfully and so thoroughly as this college. One of the 
secrets of this success has been that the department, at 
its very start, was placed upon high ground ; was treated 
with an importance and character equal to the classics, or 
mathematics ; and like these, its exercises were made 
obligatory, and its results, like these also, entered into 
the merit-roll of every student. But a stronger argument 
still was, that the students themselves became, from year 
to year, so convinced of the great advantages of these 
physical exercises in improving their health and perfecting 
their scholarship, that they would not give them up on 
any account. 

While the present rank of scholarship can not be tested 
with what it would have been without these exercises, nor 
can it be compared with what it once was before they 
were introduced, there can be no question but that the 
present scholarship of students is of a higher grade and 
character. 

HEALTH. 

In the matter of health, the facts are more obvious. A 
careful account has been kept every year of the sickness 
or loss of time from every kind of complaint of the 
students, and it has been found to be steadily diminishing; 



PHYSICAL CULTURE IN AMHERST COLLEGE. 23 

but, what is more striking, less and less in each class. The 
freshman class have the most, the sophomore not so much, 
the junior still less, and the senior the least of all. Thus, 
year by year, each class steadily improves in health, show- 
ing the immediate benefits of such exercises. This is the 
reverse of what occurred thirty, forty, and fifty years ago. 
No statistics of sickness or loss of time from illness were 
kept at that time, but we distinctly remember many cases 
of fever and other complaints, of students breaking down 
in health and leaving college. 

Another marked feature, resulting from physical train- 
ing, we believe, more than from any other cause, is a change 
in the countenance and physique of students. This ap- 
plies particularly to students in the advanced classes and 
to those graduating. Perhaps no one thing affords stronger 
evidence of good health and a high state of vitality than 
the human countenance, when carefully scanned by an 
expert sanitarian. Now, from an experience of fifty years 
with the college, and in attendance upon many commence- 
ments, we can testify that there has been a marked im- 
provement in the countenance and physique of students. 

Formerly there were more or less students with pale, 
sallow countenances, sometimes too spare, with a haggard, 
care-worn look, and without much expression ; but such a 
specimen is now seldom seen. Their countenances indi- 
cate a freshness and glow of health, with a clear skin and 
lineaments distinct and expressive, animated with highly 
arterialized blood. The body is better and more evenly 
developed in all its parts, and when moving or standing, its 
position is erect. The limbs perform good service, with 
movements easy and graceful, but at the same time prompt 
and vigorous. The whole appearance of students, with 
the changes of countenances and movements of the limbs, 
indicate a high state of physical health, vigor, and strength. 

There is still another advantage gained, the value of 



24 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

which can not be estimated in figures, nor fully described 
in language. By means of gymnastics and instruction in 
hygiene, the constitution of the student has been greatly 
strengthened, and regular habits have been formed favor- 
able to good health, not merely while in college, but that 
will last through life. The student has thus laid the 
foundation for good health in all his future years. At 
the same time he has accumulated an amount of knowl- 
edge in respect to the laws of health, which will become 
more and more valuable. 

There are still other advantages from this gymnastic 
training. It is an essential aid in securing better disci- 
pline in the institution. These exercises serve to give a 
safe vent to an excess of animal spirits, which otherwise 
might result in acts of mischief or trouble of some kind. 
This physical training is calculated to develop not only all 
parts of the body, but to make it symmetrical and well- 
balanced throughout. Such an organization tends to give 
its possessor self-reliance and self-control, by means of 
which he can turn to better account the activities of both 
the body and the mind. 

We have stated that light gymnastics afford the best 
kind of exercise for students. They harmonize with the 
laws which regulate the growth and changes in the various 
organs of the body ; they are convenient for use, and 
economize time ; they can be directed and controlled bet- 
ter than out-door sports and games. In fact, the great 
objection against intercollegiate sports and games is, they 
can not be controlled or regulated by any one united power; 
there are constant friction and complaint, and not unfre- 
quently ill-feeling and bad temper. 

EXAMPLE AND INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL CULTURE. 

There is another point that deserves notice : The ex- 
ample in starting physical culture at Amherst, and its 



PHYSICAL CULTURE IN AMHERST COLLEGE. 25 

influence. It is reported on good authority that over fifty 
large institutions in our country have either adopted some 
regular system of physical culture, or are making prepara- 
tions for the same. So intimately connected is a proper 
care and development of the body with mental and moral 
improvement, that this reform can not go backward or 
remain stationary. The more thoroughly the interdepen- 
dent relations between the mind and body are understood, 
the greater will be the value attached to a sound, healthy, 
and well-trained body. 

In the summer of 1861 Dr. Edward Hitchcock, then a 
teacher in Williston seminary, and a graduate of the medi- 
cal school of Harvard university, was invited to take 
charge of this enterprise. The remarkable success that 
has attended his labors and instructions here for twenty- 
five years affords the best evidence of his peculiar fitness 
and qualifications, that "the right man is in the right 
place." When this department started, some looked at 
it as a doubtful experiment ; others feared it would be an 
encumbrance upon the institution ; but the general verdict 
now, we believe, is, the college could not well get along 
without it. 

In this sketch of physical culture at Amherst some 
notice should be taken of the superior advantages there 
for carrying on this work. The first gymnasium, erected 
in i860, became too small and inconvenient as the classes 
grew larger. As a result of the deep interest felt in this 
department by one of its own students, a graduate of the 
class of 1879 ( Mr - c - M - Pratt > of Brooklyn, N. Y.), the 
college is chiefly indebted for its new, magnificent build- 
ing, called "Pratt Gymnasium." It was planned by Dr. 
Edward Hitchcock, after many years' experience as to 
what provisions were necessary in such an establishment, 
not only for conducting every variety of physical exercise, 
but for securing at the same time the comfort, improve- 
3 



26 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

ment, and health of the students. While the building has 
a large main hall for general exercises, it has numerous 
other rooms of different sizes, most conveniently con- 
structed, located, and arranged, for all needful purposes. 
It has provisions for every kind of bath, with abundance 
of water — cold and warm. From a careful inspection of 
the apparatus, equipments, conveniences, etc., it would 
seem that .every thing was here provided that is possible 
for the highest welfare of the students. 

Some account should be given of the measurements 
of students. We can not here go into details, but only 
make a general statement. Upon the admission of every 
new class to college each student submits to some sixty 
different measurements of his body and its parts, such as 
weight, height, lung capacity, girth of chest, arm, etc., 
and an exact record of all these measurements is kept. 
These examinations are repeated every year, and since 
they commenced over twenty -five hundred different 
students have been thus measured. In a report just pub- 
lished by Doctor Hitchcock, of twenty-five years' experi- 
ence in gymnastics, there are twelve tables, containing the 
summing up or results of these measurements. They 
show an immense work — that thousands and thousands 
of figures have been employed to obtain these results. 

While these measurements have a present value to 
every student, and to the cause generally, in the course of 
time they become invaluable in aiding to settle some prob- 
lems in vital statistics connected with physiology, biology, 
and anthropology. The statistics thus gathered will bear 
fruit through successive generations. 



Remarks on Early Education, 



O'TUDY, or mental exercise, when properly pursued, is 
** productive of health. This result harmonizes not 
only with the laws of physiology, but it is confirmed by 
all experience. It is a well-established fact that educated 
men, as a class, reach a greater age than an equal number 
of persons whose minds have not been much cultivated. 
This increased longevity is obtained not simply because 
such individuals possess the means or knowledge of tak- 
ing better care of themselves, but that a certain kind and 
amount of exercise of the brain has a salutary influence 
upon all other parts of the body. The question naturally 
arises, What are the proper guides in this matter, or what 
are the limitations to which mental exercise can be safely 
carried ? In order to arrive at any definite or satisfactory 
knowledge upon the subject, it becomes necessary to un- 
derstand some of the laws of the physical system with 
their relations to mental development, and, on the other 
hand, what is the reciprocal influence of mental exercise 
on the body. 

That there is a most intimate and interdependent rela- 
tion between the body and the mind, requires here no dis- 
cussion. If there is any advantage on either side, the 
former has it, for there may be found great numbers in 
every community possessing good physical development 
and comfortable health, without remarkable qualities of 
mind ; but distinguished abilities and attainments, com- 
bined with a well-developed and healthy physical system, 



28 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

are by no means so common. The evil most to be depre- 
cated is that these mental accomplishments are so fre- 
quently obtained at the expense of, or rather by breaking 
down, the physical system, followed by a life of feebleness 
and suffering, and, not unfrequently, by premature death. 
This depends much upon the training and habits early 
formed in the family and the school-room. 

One of the most important conditions for securing good 
health and long life is a well-balanced constitution. For 
illustration : the human body may be compared to a com- 
plicated machine, composed of many nicely-adjusted parts. 
Every mechanic will say at once, that the more perfectly 
balanced all these are kept while in operation, — so that 
each part performs well its own distinct work, — the better 
and longer such a machine will run without getting out of 
order. Here the "wear and tear" comes on all parts 
equally, or just in the manner or extent which its con- 
struction or adaptation designed. It is just so with the 
human body. The health and lives of thousands are sac- 
rificed every year by some single point — frequently very 
small — of defective organization or violation of physical 
law, when all other parts of the body are perfectly sound, 
and would have performed their respective functions for 
many years. Where one member suffers, all suffer, and 
where one dies, however premature, all die, no matter how 
sound and healthy. Such is the law of Nature. 

It is true much depends upon the soundness of the 
original constitution, as affected by the laws of hereditary 
descent and other causes ; still the organization, by proper 
care and training, may be materially modified and changed 
in early life. Those parts that are weak and defective 
may be strengthened and more fully developed ; while 
great pains should be taken that no particular class of 
organs, or any one of the temperaments, should become 
unduly predominant. It should be borne in mind that 



REMARKS ON EARLY EDUCATION. 29 

this change or improvement, if ever made, must be done 
when the various organs of the body are in a state of 
growth. And here comes in an important consideration, 
viz., the laws of growth ; according to physiology this is 
the natural order : First, the cellular tissue, then the 
muscular, the cartilaginous, the osseous, and last, the 
nervous. Inasmuch as the muscular is the moving power 
of all the other tissues, it becomes of the highest im- 
portance that its proper exercise and healthy development 
should be carefully attended to in childhood and youth. 

Whilst the various organs of the body are going through 
this process of growth, a great change of organization, by 
particles, or cells, as they are termed, is constantly taking 
place. There is not only the change required in the daily 
supply and waste for carrying on the natural functions of 
life, but, in addition, a certain amount of nutrition, rest, 
exercise, etc., is absolutely necessary for promoting the 
healthy growth of the system. Hence, in that period of 
life in which Nature intended the body should receive this 
growth, it is exceedingly important that each and every 
part should have its natural growth, in order to secure the 
right balance of organization. The supplies by way of 
nutrition, sleep, and exercise, should be abundantly ade- 
quate, not only for support, but for growth, so that every 
organ should have its due share in kind and amount. 

Among the four great agents, viz., food, sleep, air, and 
exercise, employed in promoting the growth of the system, 
that of exercise, in its various forms, is, in some respects, 
the most important. While the exercise of some portions 
of the body is in a great measure involuntary, — such as 
that of the digestive, arterial, and respiratory organs, — 
there are other portions whose use depends more upon the 
volitions of the individual. Such are the muscular and 
nervous tissues, the exercise of which has a powerful in- 
fluence for good or evil over all the other organs. Too 



30 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

much can scarcely be said in favor of the proper exercise 
of the muscles in their influence upon physical strength 
and health, as well as mental accomplishments. 

In discussing mental exercise and its effects, there are 
several points that should constantly be borne in mind. 

First. That, following the natural order or law of 
growth, the brain and nervous system come last. 

Second. That the brain, for healthy growth and exer- 
cise, requires relatively a greater amount of nutrition than 
other parts. It is allowed by physiologists, that in a nor- 
mal state, about one-third of the blood should go to sus- 
tain the brain ; and thus, in this way, one-third of the 
vitality of the system is consumed. 

Third. No kind of exercise uses up the vital energies 
or exhausts the system like that of brain-work. 

Fourth. That the brain, when properly nourished by 
good blood and refreshed by sleep and recreation, will 
work to far better advantage than when impoverished, 
weakened, or overtaxed. 

Now, what is the effect of prematurely overworking the 
brain upon the organ itself, or upon other parts of the 
system ? It is evident that when all the tissues are in a 
growing state, they require a larger amount of nutrition. 
If the brain is excessively or unduly exercised, it demands 
and receives more than its legitimate share, so that the 
other organs must suffer, — it may be the stomach, the 
heart, the lungs, or the muscles. Their natural growth 
and development are therefore checked, resulting at first 
in some very slight weakness or derangement, not per- 
ceptible at the time ; but gradually it increases, and ulti- 
mately becomes a most serious complaint or dangerous 
disease. It may be the very first approach of indigestion 
and dyspepsia, or the starting point of some one of those 
endless weaknesses and diseases connected with debility, 
anaemia, consumption, etc. 



The Education of Girls, Connected with 
Growth and Health. 



^\NE of the chief causes of failure in education is the 
^^ want of fixed principles as guides. In all matters 
appertaining to the welfare of the mind or body, we should 
always have some definite principles to direct and guide 
us. The Creator has established such laws in the human 
system for the proper development of every faculty of 
the mind, as well as organ in the body. It is the province 
of physiology to unfold the nature and character of those 
laws, in their various applications. 

There is one general law in this science which should 
be better understood. In the whole process of education 
a most important change is constantly taking place in the 
physical system, which is but little noticed, viz., growth. 
There is not only the regular law of supply and waste 
going on to support life, but, in addition, Nature demands 
that provisions should be made for the increase or growth 
of every part of the body. This law commences opera- 
tions with life, and continues to adult age, though the 
changes which Nature makes at particular periods are 
greater than at some others. An observance of this law 
of growth is of the highest importance in the whole course 
of education. 

But before noticing these laws and changes, let us in- 
quire if Nature has not established some general or normal 
standard to which we may always appeal. In considering 



32 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

any subject there are great advantages in having before 
us some perfect model or pattern, by which every part can 
be tested. In the organic world, we believe, there is every- 
where such a standard, though it may be difficult to find 
perfect examples of it. 

In physiology there is a normal standard, and it consists 
in perfection of structure and function ; that is, that every 
organ should be sound in formation, and capable of per- 
forming its legitimate office. Thus in the human body, 
all its parts must be sound and well developed, and each 
must perform its own proper function, without interfering 
with that of others. The human body may be compared 
to a complicated machine, where every part has a specific 
work to do. Hence will be seen the importance of having 
the balance or harmony kept up, so that the " wear and 
tear " shall come equally upon every part. The wisdom 
of such construction and operation is very obvious. 

The most thorough researches into both the sciences of 
anatomy and physiology demonstrate that there is such a 
standard of organization ; and upon this foundation is 
based the law of health and life. It is a normal standard, 
a universal law ; and the nearer all parts of the body can 
approximate toward it, the greater will be found the aggre- 
gate amount of health, and the longer human life. In 
the growth and changes, therefore, that take place in the 
body, it is of the highest importance that this standard or 
law should be kept constantly in view. Among the 
Greeks and Romans, where physical organization was 
made of great account, we find models set forth corres- 
ponding to this standard. In the Apollo Belvidere and 
the Venus de Medici we find the most complete illustra- 
tions of development in all parts of the body. Experience 
and observation taught the Greeks and Romans that such 
standards of organization, of all others, were the most 
desirable ; but the principles of physiology not only dem- 



THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS. 33 

onstrate the fact, but explain the reasons for it, and the 
modes by which it is obtained. 

The organization here described furnishes the founda- 
tion not only for the laws of health and long life, but 
presents the true standard of beauty, where symmetry, 
proportion,' figure, and outline are exhibited in their high- 
est perfection. There is still another principle involved 
in this same organization, more important than either or 
all of the others, — that is, the law of multiplication and 
continuance of the race. A volume might be written 
upon each of these topics, and the object of making these 
general statements here is more particularly to show what 
may be the effect in education of deviations from this nor- 
mal standard of education. It is true, we shall find no 
perfect examples, — only approximations towards them, 
composed of an almost endless variety and character. If 
these deviations from the normal standard are very marked, 
they are attended with more or less unfavorable results. 
This depends very much upon what organs, or class of 
organs, are included in the deviation. 

PHYSICAL ORGANIZATION. 

It may be said we can not change the physical system 
materially; that is beyond the power of individual choice 
or agency. To a certain extent this is true. There is a 
fixed type, or there are marked features, in the organization 
of some races, like those of the Jews, which continue for 
ages. It is so, though to a much less extent, in some 
families, where their leading characteristics are transmitted 
for generations. But in both these instances the natural 
relations are generally confined to the same classes, for 
just in proportion as this relation extends beyond kinship 
or race, will there be changes in the sameness of organi- 
zation. 

While the principal features grow out of the laws of 



34 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

inheritance, radical changes must require two or three 
generations. Still, many important changes do take place 
in the life of an individual. If the laws of growth and 
change were better understood and observed, it would be 
found that we have far greater power over the physical 
system, in development, than is generally supposed. 

It is an established fact, that every part of the body is 
constantly changing, so that in the course of seven years 
it is estimated that the whole system is entirely changed, 
not a particle of the same matter remaining at the end of 
that time. And although these changes are carried on 
according to certain fixed laws in chemistry and physiology, 
we have the power, to some extent, of directing and modi- 
fying their results. The two principal agents in effecting 
these results are nutrition and exercise. Careful examina- 
tion shows that these two agencies are controlled very 
much by our own choice and power. 

GROWTH OF THE BODY. 

The human body is made up of infinitely small cells, 
and the various changes it undergoes are very properly 
called cellular development. The principle of "waste and 
supply" is here admirably brought into exercise. While 
nutrition from food and air is continually furnishing the 
means, a set of vessels is provided to carry off all waste 
matter. These vessels or carriers are called the capillary 
system, and though at times they are exceedingly busy, 
yet they never cease their work night or day. 

The cells composing the primary elements of the body 
consist of different orders, and vary in form and size. 
The bones, muscles, ligaments, nerves, brain, etc., are all 
built up by cells, and are nourished by cells, formed from 
food and absorption outside through the lungs and the 
skin. Different kinds of food are, to a certain extent, 
designed to make a particular class of cells ; for instance, 



THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS. 35 

some form muscular fiber, others nerve tissue, and others 
adipose matter. The capillary system, which is the agent 
in these changes in cell-life, is composed of exceedingly 
small blood-vessels, and is distributed everywhere through 
the body. They act as connecting links between supply 
and waste, as messengers carrying nutritious cells, and 
removing those that are waste and decaying. In the 
whole process of digestion they act as agents, after the 
food has passed through certain changes, in carrying 
the nutrition to its place of destination, and then removing 
the waste matter. They form an important connection 
between the arteries and veins, exchanging pure blood for 
that which has become impure, extending to the purifica- 
tion of blood through the lungs. 

Without entering too minutely into physiological ques- 
tions, our object is to show briefly what are some of the 
laws of growth and change in the human system, and that 
these are, in a great measure, dependent upon human 
agency. While we may not at once be able to understand 
all the points or principles involved in the subject, enough 
may be seen to show how important they are, and that 
they should be far better understood. 

While we can not draw the line between the kinds of 
food, as to their exact adaptation to build up this or that 
tissue, it is well understood there is a great difference, 
and that selections can be made with special reference to 
developing the muscle, or strengthening the nervous sys- 
tem, or increasing the lymphatic temperament. If all 
children possessed the same organization throughout, the 
same kinds of nourishment would be adapted to all alike ; 
but as there are exceptions to this general rule, greater 
care should be exercised in such cases. The time will 
come when this whole subject will be better understood, 
and the laws of nutrition, as applied to all cases, will be 
more carefully observed. 



36 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Connected with the laws of growth and support, the 
prompt removal of all waste matter, or the secretions, is 
highly important. Unless it is done, this effete or decay- 
ing matter poisons the parts surrounding it, or re-enters 
the circulation, and becomes the cause of much disease. 
Nature has made ample provision for this work, but its 
operations are often thwarted by human agency. For 
illustration, we may refer to the importance of cleanliness 
of the skin, or to the normal action of the alimentary 
canal. Another illustration may be given in attending to 
the healthy action of the lungs, that they be not only sup- 
plied with an abundance of pure air, but that the impuri- 
ties generated by internal action should not be retained 
by compression, or want of exercise; and when once 
expelled, the smallest particles should never be allowed, 
if possible, to re-enter the lungs again. In the early 
stages of education, when the individual has no knowledge 
on the subject, and is entirely dependent upon a parent or 
teacher for guidance, it is highly important that these rules 
be applied, for they are then most needed and will do the 
greatest good. 

In providing suitable food for the body many things 
must be taken into account, and this is far more important 
to young persons while growing than to those who have 
reached adult life. Attention should be given to the 
demand of Nature in the adaptation of food, that all parts 
of the body may receive those kinds most appropriate for 
their growth and development. Besides, it is not the 
mere kind or quality alone, but there must not be defi- 
ciency in quantity, neither should it be taken in excess. 
Then there is the preparation, — the cooking part, — which 
is vastly more important in the case of the young than is 
generally considered. The health, growth, and constitu- 
tion of children depend greatly upon the preparation of 
their food. The manner and times of taking food should 



The education of girls. 37 

receive careful attention ; the food should be taken slowly 
and be well masticated ; should be consumed at regular, 
set times, — at intervals of five or six hours, and nearly in 
equal portions, unless at the last meal, which should be 
light, — care being taken to preserve always a good 
appetite. 

In the application of the principles here presented there 
are several important considerations. From the age of 
five to twenty the growth and development of the body 
should receive special attention, whereas the practice at 
the present day is reversed. In the matter of education 
the mind absorbs all attention, but the claims and interests 
of the body are regarded as of too little consequence. 
What are the teachings of physiology on this subject ? 
The principles of this science, and the lessons taught 
by experience, should be the guides. It is very obvious 
that the brain, upon which all mental manifestations 
are dependent, embracing so small a portion of the 
physical system, should not receive all the attention. 
From the age of five to twenty Nature provides especially 
for the growth of the body, so that all parts of it should 
obtain at twenty, or soon after, a healthy and complete 
development. After this period, there is no natural 
growth of the body as a whole, but changes may occur in 
different organs, and especially the brain. During all 
these years the main object of Nature in the organization 
seems to be preparatory work, — growth, training, devel- 
opment, strength, etc. 

From this general law, we should infer that no one part 
of the body should be exercised at the expense of other 
parts, so as to produce a premature development. It is 
clear that if the exercise is carried beyond the laws that 
regulate a healthy growth, and interferes with the normal 
development of other parts of the body, the result must 
be exceedingly injurious. Physiology teaches unmistak- 



38 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

ably that the normal standard is based upon a sound, well- 
balanced organization, and the nearer to it is the approx- 
imation in the development of all the organs of the body, 
the larger the amount of health, the longer the life, and 
the greater the human achievement and happiness. 

THE TEMPERAMENTS. 

This principle may be illustrated by the doctrine of 
temperaments. For the sake of convenience, we take the 
most simple division, viz. : I, The Muscular, or motive, 
made up of the ligaments, etc., and muscles generally; 
2, The Sanguine, including the heart, lungs, arteries, veins, 
etc. ; 3, The Lymphatic, composed of the lymphatics, ab- 
sorbents, and glandular system ; and 4, The Nervous, in- 
cluding the brain and nerves throughout the body. 

Now, the more evenly balanced these several tempera- 
ments are, the more healthy and perfect is the organization. 
Each organ is better able to perform its own specific duty, 
and, of course, there are greater harmony and less friction 
in their operations. In such an organization there is far 
less chance for weakness or disease to obtain a foothold. 

If there were slight deviations in the balance of the 
temperaments, it would make but little difference in the 
health or strength of an individual ; but if any one of 
these temperaments becomes altogether predominant, it 
will be accompanied with serious disadvantages : especially 
if this should happen to be the muscular or nervous, for 
these temperaments constitute the leading agents in the 
development of the organs embraced in the other two. 
The muscles involve the motive-power, — the law of exer- 
cise, — which lies at the foundation of growth and health. 
The nervous temperament includes the brain, the organ of 
will and thought, which, of course, must have a powerful 
influence in directing and shaping the development of the 
whole system. 



THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS. 39 

It may be said we have no power to change these tem- 
peraments, that we can not change or mould the organs 
of the human body at will. It is true there are bounds 
or limits in the changes of organic matter, beyond which 
we can not go ; but then, by commencing early in life, and 
persevering in the use of proper means, there is abundant 
evidence that great changes can be effected. The size 
and strength of certain parts or organs in the body have 
been, in many instances, materially changed. Illustrations 
could easily be given, where the size of muscles has been 
greatly enlarged, and where the power of the lungs and 
other organs has been surprisingly increased. The fact 
is, scarce any attempts have been systematically and 
thoroughly made for the improvement of the young in 
this direction. It will never be known what can be done 
in this way until the trial is actually made ; and before 
any radical changes or reforms can here be effected, we 
must understand better the evils now existing. We can 
notice only the more obvious of these evils, with a few 
suggestions as to their remedies. 

EVILS AND REMEDIES. 

One of the most encouraging signs of the times is that 
the attention of the public is being directed more and 
more to physical improvement. There are undoubtedly 
serious objections to some of the ways in which this in- 
terest is manifested, especially as connected with athletic 
sports and games. The matter here may be carried too 
far for the physical and moral interests of those engaged 
in them. Where this improvement is most needed, is in 
early training in the family, combined with an educational 
system. Physical improvement should become a leading 
object, both in the family and in the school; and, through 
all the stages of education, the culture of the body should 
go hand in hand with that of the mind. It should be 



40 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

made to apply especially to those who need it most, whose 
organization is weak or defective, — where some parts are 
imperfectly developed or not well balanced, and there is 
lack of strength and harmony of function. There should 
be in all schools a system of gymnastic or physical exer- 
cises of some kind, wisely adapted to the varied wants of 
the pupils. 

In advocating a more strict observance of the laws of 
health and life, and objecting to the present modes of edu- 
cation, it should be distinctly understood that no one 
department of mental culture, no particular mode of teach- 
ing, neither the higher education of women, nor co-educa- 
tion, are here singled out for criticism; neither is it 
intended to oppose or object at all to female education ; 
but, on the other hand, we advocate the highest possible 
mental culture for girls that is compatible with their whole 
organization, that harmonizes with both the physical and 
mental systems. This constitutes the only sure basis or 
foundation for all true culture, and its laws are the certain 
tests of its correctness and success ; for, guided by these 
laws, there is no theory, no experiment, no failure. 

In making application of the principles here laid down, 
reference will be made more especially to girls, as both in 
the family and in the school they are less provided with 
the means for physical development than the boys ; while, 
considering the nature and objects of their organization, 
it is far more important for girls. Within a few years the 
education of girls has been pressed with great energy, 
especially in New England. In cities and large villages, 
girls are sent annually to school from five years of age to 
sixteen or seventeen, with the exception of ten or twelve 
weeks' vacation each year. In small towns and rural dis- 
tricts the amount of schooling is less, perhaps from half 
to two-thirds as much as in cities. While great stress is 
laid upon the kind and number of studies, and the standard 



THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS. 4 1 

is raised in the mean time higher every year, scarcely any 
attention is given to the growth and development of the 
body. With rare exceptions, there is no system of gym- 
nastics or calisthenics provided in schools for girls, and, 
generally speaking, no regular and systematic exercise 
that is adapted to promote their highest physical welfare. 

In examining the effects of such a course of study the 
laws of physiology must be our guide. If we should con- 
sider, in all its bearings, the relation of the mind to the 
body through life, it would seem as though the latter 
should receive as much attention during these ten years 
as the former. It is a question whether, by such a course, 
the great object of existence might not, in a larger meas- 
ure, be secured. It is a fact that many young people who 
grow up in the country, with very limited schooling, excel in 
scholarship and attainment those trained in the schools of 
the city. It is also a fact that, where the half-time sys- 
tem of schools has been conducted a long series of years, 
the pupils (working half of the time) have made as much 
progress in learning as those attending school all the time. 

That we may obtain more definite views of the effects 
of education, as now conducted, let us consider some of 
the physiological changes produced by it. The muscles 
and the brain constitute the two leading forces in the 
human system, and may be represented by the motive and 
nervous temperaments. It is of the highest importance 
that these two temperaments should be fully developed 
and made prominent in the growth of the body ; other- 
wise, the organs included in the other two temperaments 
will never attain their proper growth and complete devel- 
opment. 

The muscles constitute by far the largest portion of the 

body ; they grow only by exercise, and become strong and 

healthy only by much exercise. Thus they receive their 

proper share of nutrition, increase in size and strength, 

4 



42 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

and gradually obtain that most important quality, — fit- 
ness for work and power of endurance. This exercise of 
the muscles must commence early, and be continued year 
after year, so that the fibers of the muscles, by repeated 
extension and contraction, become hardened and tough- 
ened ; their possessor can then work, and hold on without 
being tired, will have what is called great power of endur- 
ance. 

On the other hand, where there is deficient exercise 
and a want of proper growth and development of this 
temperament, the muscles are pale and weak, soft and 
flabby ; they have not sufficient vitality and strength to 
carry on, in a healthy and vigorous manner, the machinery 
of the whole system. The muscular temperament, when 
well developed, receives a large supply of blood, and con- 
stitutes the leading agency in causing a free and equal 
circulation of blood through the whole system ; whereas, 
when the muscular power is weak, there is a great tendency 
to frequent congestion, especially in the internal organs, 
which prepares the way for much weakness and many 
diseases. 

Besides, this muscular power in large supply is needed 
to obtain good blood by a more vigorous action of the 
lungs and stomach ; no one thing is more important for 
good health than a free and equal circulation of the blood. 
This muscular power can be obtained only by a great deal 
of exercise when young, and no substitute by friction, 
stimulants, or other human devices can be found to re- 
place it. Individuals deficient in this power labor through 
life under great disadvantages. 

Again, we have stated that, when in the course of edu- 
cation, and as a result of it, there is a great predominence 
of the nervous temperament, and a lack of the muscular, 
the internal organs of the body do not stand so good a 
chance for growth and devolopment. As a consequence, 



THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS. 43 

these same organs suffer in weakness and greater liabili- 
ties to disease ; the lungs, from consumptive complaints ; 
the stomach, from indigestion and dyspepsia; the bowels, 
from costive habits ; and the reproductive organs, from a 
variety of weaknesses and diseases. The heart also 
suffers in its action, for the want of muscular power, and 
in case of weaknesses and diseases in different parts of 
the body, it can not force the vital currents so well 
throughout the whole system. 

The weaknesses and diseases of all these organs origin- 
ate more or less from the want of muscular power, and then 
this defect comes from neglect of the kind and amount of 
physical exercise which should have been taken while the 
body was in a state of growth and development. But an 
excessive cultivation of the brain or the mind has, directly 
and indirectly, done its full share in producing these evils. 

The fact here stated brings us to one of the most seri- 
ous evils in the present modes of education. While it cul- 
tivates the mind and stores it with knowledge, training the 
mental faculties to their highest extent, and capacitating 
them for the greatest happiness, it developes at the same 
time an organization, which, unless it has health, the 
means and ability to be gratified, becomes susceptible of 
immense suffering, both of body and mind. It may be 
said that such a result can not be prevented, especially in 
some cases, but alas ! they are altogether too common, 
and are likely to increase more and more unless some 
radical reforms are effected. 

In confirmation of the statements here made we sum- 
mon the two following witnesses. Miss Elizabeth Black- 
well, m. d., who pursued, some years since, a thorough 
professional course of study in Philadelphia, and is now a 
successful practitioner of medicine in London, says, "We 
need muscles that are strong and prompt to do our will, 
that can run and walk in-doors and out of doors, and con- 



44 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

vey us from place to place as duty or pleasure calls us, 
not only without fatigue, but with the feeling of cheerful 
energy. We need muscles so well developed that shall 
make the human body really a divine image, — a perfect 
form, — rendering all dress graceful, and not requiring to 
be patched and filled up and weighed down with clumsy 
contrivances for hiding its deformities; bodies that can 
move in dignity, in grace, in airy lightness or conscious 
strength ; bodies erect and firm, energetic and active ; 
bodies that are truly sovereign in their presence, expres- 
sions of a sovereign nature. Such are the bodies we 
need ; and exercise, the means by which the muscular sys- 
tem may be developed, assumes then its true position as 
of primary importance during the period of youth. It 
is the grand necessity to which every thing else should 
submit." 

Mary J. Studley, m. d., connected a long time with the 
State Normal School for Girls at Framingham, Mass., 
says : "It has been my privilege, for more than twenty- 
five years, to be intimately associated with young women, 
either as a teacher in the school-room in the earlier years, 
or as medical practitioner or teacher of hygiene during 
the latter ones, and every day's added experience only 
confirms me in the position I have occupied from the first 
relative to the various forms of nervousness which char- 
acterize our sex. That position affirms that the best pos- 
sible balance for a weak, nervous system is a well-developed 
muscular system. Weak, shaky, hysterical nerves always 
accompany soft, flabby muscles, and it is a mournful fact 
that the majority of the young women whom I meet in 
schools are notably deficient in muscular development." 



True Basis of Education. 



TTCCORDING to physiology, all education should be 
'^^ pursued in harmony with the laws which govern the 
brain and the physical system. Formerly very little atten- 
tion was paid in education to the condition of the body 
or the development of the brain ; and even at the present 
day far less than should be to those great physical laws 
which underlie all mental culture. The lives of a multi- 
tude of children and youth are sacrificed every year by 
violating the laws of physiology and hygiene, through 
mistaken or wrong methods of mental training; besides, 
the constitution and health of a multitude of others are 
thus impaired or broken down for life. Nowhere else in 
society is a radical reform needed more than in our educa- 
tional systems. Inasmuch as the laws of the body lie at 
the foundation of all proper culture, they should receive 
the first consideration. But in educating the boy or girl, 
from the age of five to fifteen, how little attention is given 
to the growth and physical changes which necessarily 
occur at this important period of life ! The age of the 
child should be considered, the place of schooling, the 
hours of confinement and recreation, the number and 
kinds of studies, together with the modes of teaching, 
should harmonize with physical laws — especially those of 
the brain. 

The system or mode of treating all children as though 
their organizations were precisely alike, is based upon a 
false and unnatural theory. Great injury, in a variety of 



46 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

ways, results from this wrong treatment ; in fact, injuries 
are thus inflicted upon the sensitive organizations and 
susceptible minds of young children, from which they 
never recover. That many of our most independent and 
clear-headed educators themselves express so much dissat- 
isfaction with the working results of our schools affords 
evidence that something is wrong in the present system. 
As we contemplate the great improvements made in edu- 
cation for the last thirty or forty years, and are surprised 
that educators were content to tolerate the state of things 
then existing, so will the next generation, when still 
greater and more radical changes shall have been intro- 
duced, look back with astonishment at this generation, and 
wonder that it was so well satisfied with its own methods. 
When our educators become thoroughly convinced that 
physical development as a part of education is an absolute 
necessity, — that a strict observance of the laws of physi- 
ology and hygiene is indispensable to the highest mental 
culture, then we shall have vital and radical changes in 
our educational system. The brain will not be cultivated 
so much at the expense of the body, neither will the 
nervous temperament be so unduly developed in propor- 
tion to other parts of the system, often bringing on a train 
of neuralgic diseases, and exposing the individual to the 
most intense suffering which all the advantages of mental 
culture fail, not unfrequently, to conpensate. 

The more this whole subject is investigated, the more 
reason we shall find for making allowances or some dis- 
tinction in scholastic discipline with reference to the dif- 
ferences in organization of children, and for adapting the 
hours of confinement and recreation, the ventilation 
and temperature of school-rooms, the number and kinds 
of studies, the modes of teaching, etc., to the laws of the 
physical system. But another and still more important 
change must take place. Some time — may that time be 



TRUE BASIS OF EDUCATION. 47 

not far distant — there will be a correct and established 
system of mental science, based upon physiological laws ; 
and until this era arrives, the modes and methods of edu- 
cation must remain incomplete and unsatisfactory. The 
principles of this science, in the very nature of things, 
must rest upon a correct knowledge of the laws and func- 
tions of the brain ; and until these are correctly under- 
stood and reduced to a general system, all education must 
be more or less partial, imperfect, and empirical. While 
the old theories of metaphysicians are very generally dis- 
carded, they still have practically a powerful influence in 
directing and shaping our educational system and institu- 
tions. In the selection and arrangement of studies very 
little attention is paid to the peculiar nature or operations 
of the various faculties of the mind, or the distinct laws 
that govern their development and uses. For illustration 
— instead of educing, drawing out, and training all the 
mental faculties in their natural order and in harmony, 
each in proportion to its nature or importance, the 
memory is almost the only faculty appealed to in every 
stage of education ; and this is so crammed and so stuffed 
that frequently but little of the knowledge obtained can 
be used advantageously. Instead of developing the ob- 
serving faculties by " object teaching," appealing to the 
senses of sight and hearing, — those two great avenues of 
knowledge, — or giving much instruction orally, we require 
the scholar to spend most of his time in studying and 
poring over books, mere books. The mind is treated as a 
kind of general receptacle, into which knowledge almost 
indiscriminately must be poured, — yes, forced, — without 
making that knowledge one's own, or creating that self- 
reliance which is indispensable to its proper use. In this 
way the brain does not work so naturally or healthily as it 
ought, and a vast amount of time, labor, and expense is 
wasted — nay, worse than wasted. From this forced and 



48 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

unnatural process there often results not only a want of 
harmony and complete development of all parts of the 
brain, but an excessive development of the intellect with 
the nervous temperament, and not unfrequently an irrita- 
bility and morbidness which are hard to bear and difficult 
to overcome. And not unfrequently it ends in a per- 
manent disease of the brain, or confinement in a lunatic 
asylum. 

When we take a careful survey of the various discussions 
and diverse theories on this subject, considered metaphysi- 
cally, and then compare them with the great improve- 
ments and discoveries in the physical sciences for the last 
fifty years bearing upon the same subject, the change of 
progress looks mainly in one direction, viz., that all true 
mental science must ultimately be based upon physiology. 
Here is a great work to be performed, and when accom- 
plished it will constitute one of the greatest, most valu- 
able, and important achievements that was ever wrought 
in the history of science. A large amount of positive 
knowledge has already been accumulated on this subject 
by various writers, but a great work, by way of analysis, 
observation, and induction, and of further discoveries as 
to the functions of the brain, remains to be completed. 



SANITARY. 



Normal Standard of Physiology. 



TT is admitted that Professor Huxley is the highest living 
authority on matters pertaining to physiology. The 
following table, prepared by Professor Huxley, defines the 
constituent elements that compose a perfect human body. 
It describes exactly not only all of its principal parts, but 
what supplies it must have, from day to day, to preserve 
it in a healthy state. This table reads as follows : — 

"A full-grown man should weigh 154 pounds, made up 
thus : muscles and their appurtenances, 68 pounds ; skele- 
ton, 24 pounds ; skin, 10 1-2 pounds ; fat, 28 pounds; brain, 
3 pounds; thoracic viscera, 3 1-2 pounds; abdominal vis- 
cera, 1 1 pounds ; blood which would drain the body, 7 
pounds. This man ought to consume per diem : lean 
beefsteak, 5000 grains ; bread, 6000 grains ; milk, 7000 
grains ; potatoes, 3000 grains ; butter, 600 grains ; and 
water, 22,900 grains. His heart should beat 75 times a 
minute, and he should breathe 15 times a minute. In 
twenty-four hours he vitiates 1750 cubic feet of pure air, 
to the extent of 1 per cent. ; a man, therefore, of the 
weight mentioned, ought to have 800 feet of well-venti- 
lated space. He would throw off by the skin 18 ounces 
of water, 400 grains of solid matter, and 400 grains of 
carbonic acid, every twenty-four hours ; and his total loss 
during the twenty-four hours would be 6 pounds of water 
and a little above 2 pounds of other matter." 

This description represents a harmony or balance of 
human organization which, we believe, has practically very 



50 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

important bearings. We have, in this description, set 
forth to a certain extent both the anatomy and physiology of 
the body — the structure in the fore part, and the function 
in the latter part. This organization may very properly 
be considered the normal standard of the human system, 
— that it is represented here in its best estate. While 
we may not, perhaps, find perfect examples like the or- 
ganization here described, we find all manner of approxi- 
mations towards it. Still the standard remains the same, 
and upon it are based, we believe, certain great physiologi- 
cal laws, which are fundamental and vastly important. 
Some of these laws we propose to notice briefly in this 
article. 

I. The Law of Health. — In analyzing this table we 
might almost scientifically figure out the exact changes 
which cause disease. There must be, in the very nature 
of things, one kind or type of organization more conducive 
to health than another. Admitting this fact, there must 
be an organization of the body far better adapted to secure 
perfect health than all others. What, then, must be its 
type or character? What must be its anatomy and its 
construction ? Is not that the standard which consists in 
a perfect development of all the organs of the human 
body, so that there shall be a perfect harmony in the per- 
formance of their respective functions ? By referring to 
the table, it will be seen at once that a change in the 
weight or measures pertaining to any part of the body 
will make a radical change in the type or standard set 
before us. If you change any one of these factors, you 
destroy the harmony or balance in the whole organism. 
If the structure is changed, it impairs just so much of its 
functions. This constitutes the entering wedge of disease. 
The particular kind or character of the disease must 
depend upon what organ or part of the body is changed. 
By referring to the table we find certain directions given 



NORMAL STANDARD OF PHYSIOLOGY. 5 1 

as to the support of the body. If there is a failure to 
carry out these directions, or if there is any material 
change in the character of the supplies, disease may not 
at once be produced, but the vital forces of the system 
may be lowered, or some weakness started. The first 
changes may be slight in their character, but lead to 
serious results. Some of the gravest diseases originate 
from the most trivial causes. 

There are, it may be said, different degrees of health. 
This fact is very obvious. What makes the difference ? 
It is not because this or that organ alone is sounder in 
one person than another. It is not simply because one 
person takes so much better care of himself than another, 
though this makes quite a difference. If we bring together 
all the causes or reasons, we shall find that the secret con- 
sists in the fact that the constitution of one is more per- 
fectly and evenly developed ; that there is greater harmony 
and completeness in the performance of the functions of 
all parts of the body. There must, therefore, be a general 
law regulating this whole matter of health — some standard, 
some type of organization, better than all others. As far 
as figures can explain it, we find it described in the table 
at the head of this article. In other words, it consists in 
that type or standard where every organ in the human 
body is perfect in structure, and where each performs 
perfectly its own legitimate functions. In some respects 
the body may be compared to a complicated machine, so 
thoroughly and perfectly made that the "wear and tear" 
will come equally upon every part according to the design 
in its construction. 

Closely connected with, and legitimately following, this 
condition of things, we find Nature has established another 
law, viz. : — 

II. The Law of Longevity. — Is there not some stand- 
ard or model laid down by physiology itself, that shows 



52 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

why, in certain cases, life should be protracted to a great 
age ? It does not depend upon food, climate, locality, race, 
or care, though all these may have much to do with it. Is 
there not an internal factor more potent than all these ? 
One of the great secrets, we believe, not only of good 
health, but of long life, consists in the harmony or balance 
of organization. This must apply both to structure and 
function. The leading vital organs should be not only 
sound, but well balanced. The principal forces in carrying 
on the functions of life may be summed up under these 
heads : respiration, digestion, circulation, assimilation, and 
secretion. Each of these departments must be well sus- 
tained in order to secure long life. 

But, aside from any theory, or opinion, or argument, 
what are the actual facts — what do we find in the organ- 
ization of those persons who have reached a very great 
age ? No tables or statistics can be given from post- 
mortem examinations of such cases, because attention has 
not been turned in this direction. But, from the physical 
description of a great number of very aged persons, and 
from careful observation also of a very large number, we 
have always found that a most striking harmony or bal- 
ance of the physical system prevailed. In great longevity 
there is uniformly found remarkable consistency or even- 
ness in the mental, moral, and social elements of character. 
These traits originate from a sound and well-developed 
brain. This organ plays a very important part in securing 
longevity. 

There is another argument in favor of this law of lon- 
gevity — that the extremes in physical or mental develop- 
ment seldom reach a very great age. It should be borne 
in mind that the law of longevity here advocated consti- 
tutes the golden mean, or balance-wheel, between these 
extremes. For instance : the defective classes, such as 
the insane, the idiotic, the deaf-and-dumb, the blind, etc., 



NORMAL STANDARD OF PHYSIOLOGY. 53 

are not, as a body, long-lived ; neither are dwarfs or giants, 
nor persons approximating such organizations, very long- 
lived. 

There is another very important factor in longevity, — 
that is, inheritance. Scarcely any fact on this subject is 
more firmly established than that the ancestry, the family, 
or stock, has much to do with long life. Seldom, if ever, 
do we find a person reaching a great age without some one 
or more persons in the ancestry have reached a great age. 
What, then, is the peculiarity, or type of organization, here 
perpetuated ? What are its elements that make life so 
long? Do we not find that they consist in a sound, 
healthy structure of every part of the body, and that there 
is a remarkable balance in all the organs, and a harmony 
of functions? So universally is this essential element 
found in persons long-lived, that we question whether a 
single exception to the rule can be found. This leads 
to another application of this normal standard of physi- 
ology, — that upon it is based 

III. The Law of Heredity. — For centuries there has 
been more or less interest on this particular topic. A large 
mass of facts have been gathered upon the subject, and 
physiologists now generally admit that there must be 
truth in this matter of inheritance. Within a few years 
the interest has greatly increased. In the case of domes- 
tic animals the principle has been reduced almost to a 
science. With some changes or modifications, the same 
principle which has been so successfully applied to the 
animal creation will apply to human beings. But before 
there can be great advances on the subject, we must un- 
derstand heredity better, we must have some general law 
or principle to guide us. What we need more than any 
thing else, is a general principle or law, by means of which 
all the facts or knowledge of this kind can be classified 
and reduced to some system. It is impossible to make 



54 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

any great advances or improvement upon this subject of 
heredity without such a guiding principle or standard of 
appeal. In the facts or phenomena of Nature there must 
be some general law or principle to guide us in understand- 
ing them and improving upon them. All science makes 
progress only in this way. 

While there may be different factors and secondary 
causes in producing many of these hereditary phenomena, 
if the primary cause or starting point could be ferreted 
out, we might find it to extend back several generations. 
All the general principles of science, when traced back to 
their origin, are based upon Nature in its best condition. 
And the nearer we can go back to a perfect physical 
organization, the less peculiarity, eccentricity, or defect 
shall we find. It may be we can not explain or under- 
stand all the causes of strange or different phenomena or 
character ; it does not disprove but there may exist a 
general law somewhere. It is true, there have been dif- 
ferent theories and speculations in accounting for heredi- 
tary influences, but we do not believe that they can all 
be explained so satisfactorily upon any other law or 
hypothesis as upon the one here stated — that is, upon a 
perfect development of anatomy and physiology, or in 
other words, that all the organs in the human body shall 
be so constructed that there must be legitimately a 
healthy performance of all their functions. 

There is another important test in favor of this normal 
type of physiology — as far as the human body is con- 
cerned, it presents the true standard of beauty. Man was 
created with a sense of taste and love for the beautiful, 
which, cultivated and perfected, might find objects in 
Nature capable of gratifying this taste to its fullest ex- 
tent. Now there must be a type or model for man, which 
in form, proportion, size, fullness, outline, is more beauti- 
ful than all others. Is not this the same standard that 



NORMAL STANDARD OF PHYSIOLOGY. 55 

Grecian and Roman artists have attempted to imitate in 
statuary ? Has it not, in all ages and with all nations, 
attracted attention ? Why should it not constitute the 
basis or foundation for most valuable laws ? But the most 
important law of all, involved in this physiological 
description, remains to be stated, that is 

IV. The Law of Human Increase. — This law virtually 
controls all the others. With a change here, the condi- 
tions of health, of longevity, and of heredity would 
necessarily be more or less affected. It is, in fact, the 
starting-point, the ground-work of most important inqui- 
ries that can be raised connected with physiology. All 
that we can here do is to state briefly what this law is, what 
some of the evidences in support of it are, and what are 
some of its applications. 

In the first place, there is no universal law of population, 
that is generally admitted as such and referred to as author- 
ity. Nearly one hundred years ago Malthus established 
what he supposed a general principle to regulate popula- 
tion, and his theory prevailed for fifty years or more. It is 
discarded now by nearly all physiologists, as well as most 
writers on political economy. It is rare to find now any 
prominent writer advocating the doctrines of Malthus. 
The theories of Herbert Spencer on this subject have 
probably, at the present day, more influence than those of 
any other writer. The views of Spencer, unlike those of 
Malthus, are based upon physical organization, but are 
not so strictly physiological as the law here proposed. 
The foundation, the ground-work, of the law we advocate, 
is based solely upon anatomy and physiology in their best 
estate. There are other factors, such as food, climate, ex- 
ercise, and other external agents, but these are secondary. 

That this law may be distinctly understood, we will 
describe, as briefly as possible, what is meant by it. It is 
based upon a normal or perfect physical standard of the 



56 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

human system, where every organ of the body is complete 
in structure and performs fully all its natural functions. 
This principle implies that the body is symmetrical, well- 
developed in all its parts, so that each organ acts in har- 
mony with all others. According to this principle the 
nearer the organism approaches that standard and the 
laws of propagation are observed, the greater will be 
the number of children, and the better will be their 
organization for securing the great objects of life. 

On the other hand, if the organization is carried to an 
extreme development in either direction, viz. : a predom- 
inance of the nerve tissue, or of a low animal nature, the 
tendency in such families or races is gradually to decrease 
and ultimately to become extinct. Thus people enjoying 
the very highest civilization, or living in the lowest sav- 
age state, do not multiply rapidly. It is well known that 
the families in Europe belonging to the nobility or aris- 
tocracy, whose nerve tissue has become predominant by 
intermarriage from generation to generation, do not in- 
crease much, and not unfrequently these families become 
extinct. 

A similar result has followed the intermarriage of rela- 
tives, from the fact that the same weaknesses or predispo- 
sitions to disease are intensified by this alliance. On the 
other hand, in case these relatives have healthy, well- 
balanced organizations, — it may be they are cousins, — 
they will abound in healthy offspring, and the stock may 
improve, and not deteriorate, from the mere fact of rela- 
tionship. It explains a principle that has long been em- 
ployed in the improvement of domestic stock, under the 
terms, "breeding in and in " and "cross-breeding." 



Physical Development. 



JJS this phrase, "physical development," has been se- 
"^^ lected for a running topic, or central point, in this 
work, it seems proper that some explanation should be 
given of its meaning. The word "physical " is well under- 
stood as referring to material things, but the term "devel- 
opment " may be interpreted in different ways. It is 
defined by Webster as the "unfolding or unravelling of a 
plan or method, or series of progressive changes"; imply- 
ing that there had been certain preparatory work before 
the thing itself had reached its present form. When the 
term is used connected with physiology, it is understood, 
in one sense, to signify the size or form of any part or 
organ of the body. Then, it has a relative meaning, — 
that is, when one part or organ is compared with another. 
There is still another sense in which the word may some- 
times be used, — that is, where we have a standard or 
model set before us, by which a comparison is made. This 
last use of the term development is very important ; but 
much here depends upon what is this standard or model. 

Many years since, after much study and reflection, we 
became convinced that there must exist in physiology a 
type of organization which very properly might be desig- 
nated a normal standard. Upon examination, we find a 
great variety or difference in organization, as far as health 
or disease is concerned. The term "normal," when ap- 
plied to physiology, is understood to indicate a healthy 



58 ' PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

state, or freedom from disease. As there may be different 
degrees of health and one type of organization better than 
any other, we would call the best a normal standard. It pre- 
sents, therefore, a model or rule to guide us in all our 
investigations connected with this science. In all such 
studies there is great advantage in having a law or rule 
constantly in mind, and, in case of difficulty or doubt, 
to which we can appeal. Without some law or standard, 
it is hard to make advances in any science or department 
of knowledge. In physiology this becomes doubly neces- 
sary when we want to improve organization and remove 
causes that perpetuate disease. The more this subject is 
investigated, the more important it will be found that 
such a course is necessary. 

In a preceding article will be found a standard where 
the constituent elements were furnished by Professor Hux- 
ley. Here the different parts composing the human body 
are obtained mostly by weight. The pattern described 
might be considered that of an average man, or a physio, 
logical type of the highest order, and might very properly 
be reckoned as one of normal standard. 

Two very important experiments are being carried on in 
this country to obtain correct standards or models of the 
human body. One of these is conducted by Dr. D. A. Sar- 
gent, of Harvard university, and the other by Dr. Edward 
Hitchcock, of Amherst college. This is done by taking 
an immense number of measurements of college students, 
including every part of the body. Doctor Hitchcock has 
been taking these measurements for over twenty-five years, 
and has examined nearly three thousand different students. 
He is still prosecuting his inquiries, and collecting an 
immense amount of figures and tables. The greater the 
number of students examined, and the larger the quantity 
of statistics on the subject, the more perfect will be the 
standard. Doctor Hitchcock is here working out a prob- 



PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 59 

lem which, in time, may be turned to a most valuable 
account. 

In Professor Hartwell's report of physical training in 
American colleges and universities, we find this sketch of 
Doctor Sargent's views: "The object of physical train- 
ing with us is not to make men active and strong as much 
as it is to make them healthy and enduring. Perfect 
health implies a condition in which all parts of the body 
are properly nourished and harmoniously developed, — in 
which the vital organs are sound, well balanced, and capa- 
ble of performing their functions to the fullest extent. 
The researches of the physiologists have shown that, 
whenever a certain organ or class of organs becomes rela- 
tively too large or too small, causing a want of balance or 
harmony in their action, there is in every case a far greater 
liability to disease. It is in imperfect, ill-balanced organ- 
izations that we find the greatest amount of sickness and 
the greatest number of incurable diseases. It is the weak 
spots caused by inheritance, acquired by exposure, close 
confinement, overwork, etc., that invite disease and death, 
even though the rest of the system be in perfect con- 
dition. To attain a perfect structure, harmony in devel- 
opment, and a well-balanced organism is our principal 
aim." 

Doctor Sargent has been engaged in this work many 
years, and has made more examinations than any other 
person. Now having a physiological standard of health 
before him, in examining a person, he can more readily 
find weaknesses and defects. Thus having ascertained 
these points in individual cases, the question is, What 
can be done to remedy these evils? This opens a 
most fruitful field for study and experiment. It is found 
that by special training, and the use of apparatus adapted 
to each case, these weaknesses and defects can be very 
much modified, and in some instances overcome. By this 



60 - PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

means the health and constitution of such persons become 
also much improved. 

Doctor Sargent has for years been doing here a 
good work, and finds his labors in demand in many 
different institutions. Among these are several female 
colleges and seminaries, where such training may be turned 
to a most useful account. "To attain perfect structure, 
harmony in development, and a well-balanced organism," 
is a movement in the right direction ; aiming to secure 
what may be truly designated a "Normal Standard of 
Physiology." 

This increased interest in physical culture in our educa- 
tional institutions is an encouraging sign. As it bears its 
own fruit, which must be evident to all, this reform must 
go forward. No greater or more important reform can be 
carried on in behalf of education than improving the 
physical development of students. 

In addressing the alumni of Harvard university, not 
long since, President Eliot made this remark: "Now, 
everything depends with us, and in the learned professions, 
upon vigor of body. The more I see of the future of 
young men that go out from these walls, the more it is 
brought home to me that professional success, and success 
in all the learned callings, depends largely upon the vigor 
of body, and that the men who win great professional 
distinction have that as the basis of their activity." If 
careful inquiry on this point were made in respect to the 
graduates of other colleges, we believe the truth of this 
remark would be abundantly confirmed. 



The Law of Longevity. 



^FHE subject of longevity has always attracted much at- 
tention. The art and means of prolonging life were 
frequently made the themes of discussion, long before the 
real structure and functions of the most important organs 
in the human body were discovered. But as the principles 
of physiology have of late years become better understood, 
new interest has sprung up in relation to all matters per- 
taining to health ; and the inquiry is very generally raised 
at the present time, what are the best means of preserving 
life, and thus securing that great boon, longevity ? Now, 
may there not be a general principle or law, grounded 
in physiology, which may serve as a guide in these mat- 
ters, and help to illustrate and explain all minor facts or 
secondary considerations ? Is there not some standard or 
model established by Nature herself, to which we may al- 
ways appeal, and by which all doubtful questions here may 
be tested ? From our knowledge of the laws of Nature, as 
well as of the principles of science generally, we should 
naturally infer that there must be found in physiology 
some such general law, or such standard. Several years 
since, after somewhat extended observation and no small 
amount of reflection and reading, we became convinced that 
there existed a general law of population, or increase, 
as a fundamental principle in physiology, and that this same 
law of propagation (subject to certain conditions) extended 
throughout the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms. If 
such a law in Nature does exist, it might be inferred that 



62 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

it would have some connection with the greatest amount 
of health and longevity. 

Law of Propagation. — This law may be briefly denned 
thus : it is based upon a perfect standard of organization, 
or consists in the perfectionism of structure ; or, in other 
words, that every organ in the human body should be per- 
fect in structure, and that each should perform its legiti- 
mate functions in harmony with others. Taking this, then, 
as a standard, we have a great law or principle pervading 
all organic matter, that furnishes a guide by which all de- 
viations from this model, and the manifold changes that 
follow, may be explained and understood. While this law 
is subject to certain conditions, as food, climate, exercise, 
etc., all these act as secondary agents or factors. They 
may modify the operation of the law, but can not change its 
nature or general character. 

Evidences in proof of such a law may be deduced from 
physiology itself, from pathology, from the laws of heredi- 
tary descent, from the effects of intermarriage of relations, 
from facts gathered in the history of different families, and 
changes in numbers, as applied to distinct classes, races, 
and nations. But without dwelling upon these points we 
maintain that the organization upon which this law of prop- 
agation is based, presents also the only true standard in 
physiology for the greatest amount of longevity — of health 
— of physical strength and happiness, as well as of beauty 
in form and outline. 

Law of Longevity. — But it is proposed to consider here 
only the application of this law to longevity. By this term 
is meant long life — the greatest duration of human life, 
whether in isolated cases or in large numbers. Where, 
then, are these cases found — what is their character — 
and what are the facts attending them ? 

In the first place, it is very evident that long life is not 
dependent alone upon food, nor upon climate, nor upon 



THE LAW OF LONGEVITY. 63 

exercise ; neither is it found in any one locality, nor with any 
one people, nor in any particular station ; neither where 
great riches or excessive poverty prevail. It is some- 
times found in the city, but more generally in the country. 

All must admit that some of these conditions are very 
important, and that good health and long life must depend 
greatly upon the manner in which the relations between 
the various parts of the system and these external agents 
are carried on. But after all, may there not exist a gen- 
eral law in the body itself upon which these depend ? If 
we had perfect standards of organization around us upon 
which this law is based, its truth would be more easily 
demonstrated ; but instead of such, we have only approxi- 
mations, and these in almost endless variety and form. In 
order that we may have a clearer and more definite under- 
standing of the foundation of this law, let us carefully ex- 
amine its physiological conditions. Every animal organi- 
zation is complex — is composed of many distinct organs. 
Each organ has a specific work to do, and in its normal 
state must do so much and no more. Now in the healthiest 
and most perfectly organized structure, all these separate 
organs are found not only in a perfectly healthy condition 
— each one performing its own normal functions — but 
well balanced and working harmoniously together. In this 
state "the wear and tear," or the demands which Nature 
makes to support life and carry on its operations, come 
upon all these organs alike, each according to its own na- 
ture, without infringing upon that of any other. 

The Human Body Compared to a Machine. — In the 
promotion of health and longevity, too much stress can not 
be attached to the importance of preserving this harmony 
or balance of organization. In some respects the human 
body may be compared to a perfect machine, made up of 
many complicated parts. How different the working or 
running of such a machine from that of one imperfectly 



64 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

constructed and unequally balanced in all its parts ! The 
one seldom needs repairs, the other frequently. The one 
will last as it were for an age ; the other becomes almost 
useless in a short time. 

It is so in reference to the human system. Whenever a 
certain organ or class of organs becomes relatively too 
large or too small, causing a want of balance or harmony 
in their action, there must be in the very nature of the case 
far greater liability to disease. Accordingly, it is in per- 
sons possessing this imperfect, ill-balanced organization, 
that we find not only the greatest amount of sickness, but 
that which is most obstinate and fatal. How often it hap- 
pens that some slight derangement or trifling weakness 
operates as the entering wedge to the most serious dis- 
eases ! It is the weak spot caused by inheritance, or de- 
veloped by exposure, where disease finds its germ or start- 
ing point, though all other parts of the system are in a 
perfectly sound condition ; and not unfrequently life is 
terminated by a single organ, or even some part of it, giv- 
ing out, when all the other organs might have performed 
their healthy functions for many years. 

We dwell upon the importance of this harmony or bal- 
ance of action in the vital forces, for it is the great secret 
of good health and long life. It is a cardinal point in the 
law of longevity, as will appear from a more full sketch of 
its foundation. 

Perfect Structure and Harmony of Function. — It is 
upon this perfect structure or anatomy of the body, com- 
bined with the normal action of all its physiological func- 
tions, upon which we base this law of longevity. It is true 
we have no such perfect standards or models of human or- 
ganization now existing, but only approximations towards 
them. Still the law may apply to such as we have, just as 
well as the general law of gravitation or attraction to the 
smallest-sized bodies. We can readily conceive of such 



THE LAW OF LONGEVITY. 65 

standards, and how the same law that governs them may 
be applicable to their representatives of whatever grade or 
character. 

All the pains, the weaknesses, and the diseases of the 
human body are but the result of deviations from this nor- 
mal state ; and all the means and agencies employed for 
the preservation of health and life look towards restoring 
this standard. It is well known that there are influences 
constantly operating to produce changes both in the struc- 
ture and functions of the system. Some of these agencies 
have their origin internally; some act entirely external to 
the body, and others operate by what are called laws of 
heredity. By some of these influences the physical sys- 
tem is improved and perfected, but by others the devia- 
tions from a healthy standard are increased more and more. 
Probably the most powerful of these forces is that of in- 
heritance. This agency constitutes a very important ele- 
ment in the law of longevity. All writers upon this subject 
place this condition as first and foremost — that one of the 
almost indispensable requisitions for long life is good 
healthy stock, or long-lived ancestry. For it has been 
found by universal observation and experience, that the 
representatives of such stock live the longest, and that 
very seldom, if ever, are found persons of great age origi- 
nating from feeble and short-lived ancestry. 

Law of Inheritance. — Now what is the secret of this 
transmitted power that conduces so much to longevity ? 
May there not be some general principle or law involved in 
these changes from hereditary influences, which may aid 
us in explaining the why and wherefore ? We know well 
the effects of such power, but what is the explanation — 
what is the philosophy involved ? Under the law in Na- 
ture that "like begets like," and that when the producing 
forces are sound and healthy it is found that their offspring 
will partake of the same character, and that under favor- 



66 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

able circumstances this may be continued for several gen- 
erations. Sometimes there is an improvement in the 
stock ; but not unfrequently a deterioration, especially after 
three or four generations. 

Now what is the peculiarity or type of organization here 
perpetuated ? What are its elements or constituents ? 
What makes it long-lived ? Do we not find that it con- 
sists in a sound, healthy structure in every part of the body, 
and that there is a remarkable balance in all the organs 
and harmony of functions ? We venture the assertion that 
such will be found the character of this organization in 
every instance, and that there are no exceptions to the rule. 
Does not this, then, afford evidence that there is a general 
law in Nature conducive to longevity, and that this law is 
based upon that organization which is most perfect, and all 
of whose functions act most harmoniously ? Let us apply 
the rule to such individuals and families reaching a great 
age, that have come under our own observation. For many 
years we have verified the fact in numerous cases, and have 
never found an exception. 

There is another point of view whereby this law may be 
tested. Certain physiological conditions have been laid 
down by some writers as sure indications of longevity. 
These conditions embrace the healthy performance of the 
functions of all the leading organs of the body, and may be 
summed up under these heads : Respiration, Digestion, 
Circulation, Assimilation, and Secretion. Where all the 
vital forces connected with each of these departments of 
physiology are found to operate regularly and vigorously, 
they are thought to be the sure indications and precursors 
of longevity. Now what does this imply but soundness of 
structure and harmony of function ? Let any one of these 
fail in the least of performing its part, and all suffer. Does 
not this view of longevity, then, furnish strong evidences 
in favor of the law which has been set forth in this paper? 



THE LAW OF LONGEVITY. 6*J 

Signs of Longevity. — There is another class of facts 
which have an important bearing upon this question. These 
are what are denominated the physical signs of longevity. 
There must be a symmetrical development of the whole 
body. The head must not be too large or too small. The 
neck must not be too long or too slender. The chest must 
be well developed, but the abdomen must not be too large. 
The whole body must be well proportioned, not too tall nor 
too short. No class of organs must be too predominant ; 
or, in other words, the temperaments must be properly 
mixed or blended; especially the nervous and the san- 
guine, possessing more of the vital organs, must not be 
very conspicuous. There are some minor signs, such as 
the voice, the teeth, the color of the eyes and the skin, the 
quality of organization, etc. ; but when we sum up all the 
foregoing signs, do they not clearly point to a harmony or 
balance of all the organs of the body, and thus confirm the 
truth of the law of longevity as here advocated ? 

There is a large body of facts also connected with the 
cure and prevention of disease, that has a direct bearing 
upon this subject. All sound medical treatment, and means 
for the promotion of health, operate in harmony with this 
great law of longevity. They aim to restore the normal 
structure and healthy -functions of every part of the body. 

In all works treating of longevity great stress is laid 
upon the influence of climate, food, air, water, exercise, 
etc. Statistics show that, while the extremes of either 
heat or cold are not conducive to long life, a moderate cli- 
mate, in countries where the changes of temperature are 
neither too great nor too sudden, is decidedly favorable. 
But even here there must be a strict observance of hy- 
gienic laws. In relation to the right kinds of food and 
drink, pure air, healthy localities, dwellings, employments, 
etc., however important, they are all secondary agencies, 
and operate under and in harmony with one general law. 



68 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Mental Hygiene. — But there is still another class of 
facts differing from any of those mentioned, that has a 
powerful influence upon longevity, viz., the influence of 
mind upon the body. Mental training, a well-balanced 
mind, a cheerful, contented disposition, and temperate 
habits are, with rare exceptions, found indispensable. Now 
these presuppose an harmonious development of the whole 
body, and particularly of all parts of the brain. For it is 
impossible, we believe, to obtain the qualities here men- 
tioned in a high degree without these two conditions. 
And the nearer this development approaches that stand- 
ard of organization upon which is based the great law 
of longevity, the greater will be not only the aggregate 
amount of health, but the longer the duration of human 
life. This statement will be found abundantly verified 
in the history and character of persons who have reached 
a great age. 

This interdependence of body and mind is becoming 
every year better and better understood. It is found that 
the relations of the mind to the body, and of the various 
states and changes of physical organization to the mind, 
have a powerful influence upon health. And the more 
marked and abnormal the differences in this relation, the 
more striking are the effects. If, then, health is so de- 
pendent upon the state and relation of these two agents, 
the duration of human life must be most sensibly affected 
by it. And we venture the assertion, that the more thor- 
oughly this particular feature of the subject is investi- 
gated, the more important and far-reaching will be found 
the influence of these reciprocal relations. The evidences 
derived from this source will go far, we believe, towards 
proving that Nature has established a certain harmony or 
equilibrium of action between the body and the mind, and 
the more perfect that development and harmonious the 
performance of their respective functions, the nearer is the 



THE LAW OF LONGEVITY. 69 

approach to that standard of organization upon which is 
based the law of longevity. 

This view explains, in part, why the average age of man 
has been increased by education, and that the greatest lon- 
gevity is found among nations most highly civilized. In 
confirmation of this remark, a distinguished writer says : 
"That type of civilization in which the efficiency of the 
community and of the individual is greatest, in which there 
is the most harmonious action between the body and the 
mind, the greatest happiness of the greatest number, the 
least excessive expenditure with the least luxury, where 
regularity and temperateness are innate characteristics, 
will be that state of civilization most favorable to longev- 
ity." It is scarcely necessary to say that such a type of 
civilization could not exist without well-developed physical 
organizations generally, and an harmonious action of all the 
mental faculties. 

Another well-known writer on this subject, after enu- 
merating among the prerequisites to longevity, temperate 
and regular habits, a cheerful and contented disposition, 
says there must be not only an equilibrium of the mental 
faculties, but a descent from long-lived ancestors, a tran- 
quil and happy temperament, a general symmetry of 
physical conformation, and harmonious' proportion of all 
the different parts and organs of the body. 

Numerous quotations might be cited from other authors, 
and many additional facts might be gathered from various 
sources in support of this theory of longevity ; but our 
present limits will not permit. Perhaps the theory of one 
writer should not be passed by unnoticed, inasmuch as it 
maybe thought to have some resemblance to the one here 
presented. 

Theory of M. Flour ens. — M. Flourens, in a very elab- 
orate treatise, maintained that man ought, by virtue of his 
natural constitution, to live a hundred years, and that this 



yO PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

natural term of life is abridged only by his own improvi- 
dence, follies, and excesses. The length of human life he 
attempts to establish by the law of growth and by analogy, 
viz., that every animal will live, on an average, five times 
the period of his growth. Thus, as it is found by anatomy 
that it takes, on an average, twenty years for man to reach 
his perfect growth, especially the bony structure, the limit 
of life would be one hundred years. Flourens held that 
neither climate, nor food, nor race, nor any external con- 
dition, had much to do with the duration of life, but this 
depended almost wholly upon the natural constitution, and 
the intrinsic vigor of all the organs of the body. But he 
does not define very clearly how this natural constitution 
is based upon the anatomy and physiology of the system, 
nor attempt to show what are its laws and relations to the 
external world. We all know that climate, food, and other 
external agents have a powerful influence upon the de- 
velopment and preservation of the body. One great defect 
in his theory is, that he does not point out distinctly the 
great laws of health and life as based on physiology and 
external nature, which extend not only through individual 
existence, but are universal throughout creation. As to 
the question what is the natural period of human life, pro- 
vided all the conditions are favorable, perhaps he is not so 
much out of the way, though the testimony of most writers 
would place the limit somewhat less. Flourens presents 
us no standard of organization as a perfect model of imita- 
tion, and upon which the great laws of health and life 
must be based. If we take into consideration the structure 
and functions of the human body, — the design of its ex- 
istence and its adaptation to external objects, — there must 
be certain relations and fixed laws that govern in all these 
matters. For illustration : there is a fixed law that exists 
in the relation of pure air to the healthy functions of the 
lungs. It is so in reference to all other parts of the body. 



THE LAW OF LONGEVITY. JY 

Now it is in the summing up of all these laws, as applied 
to a perfect organization, that we find the law of longevity. 
All the great laws of Nature, that are fixed and universal, 
are invariably found based upon her works in a normal 
state, or in their most perfect development. As in paint- 
ing and statuary the artist has constantly in his mind an 
ideal model, — a typical standard which no living beings 
have ever reached, but only made approximations to, — so 
in physiology it is easy to conceive of a standard which 
represents an organization in its highest state of develop- 
ment. It was with reference to the making up and arrang 
ing the constituent elements which enter into such a 
standard that led the most profound physiologist in our 
country (Professor Draper) to make this remarkable state- 
ment : " The approach to precision in these hypothetical 
constants will in all times be a measure of the exactness of 
physiology, and, it may be added, also of the practice of 
medicine. The time is at hand when such a typical stand, 
ard must be the starting-point for pathology, and no 
rational practice can exist without it. The passage of 
physiology from a speculative to a positive science is the 
signal for a revolutio7i in the practice of medicine." 

Advantages of the Law of Longevity. — The question 
may very properly be asked, Supposing there is such a 
law of longevity, what are its advantages ? We answer, 
many and great. It is not a mere speculative theory, or 
vague hypothesis, that can not be comprehended or ap- 
plied to any practical purpose. It harmonizes not only 
with all the well-known truths of physiology and pathology, 
but is sustained by all the agencies employed by Nature 
or Art for the protection and preservation of life. In 
fact, it is that great general law established by the Creator 
himself for perfecting and prolonging the life of every 
human being, of which all minor laws are a part and 
parcel. It holds up before us that perfect form and image 



72 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

in which man was created, and presents an embodiment 
of those laws and conditions with which we must comply 
in order to secure the greatest amount of happiness and 
the longest duration of life. 

With such a standard constantly before us, shall we not 
make greater efforts to conform to it, than if we had no 
such conception ? Besides, by means of understanding 
the various deviations from this perfect standard, we ob- 
tain a better knowledge of the infirmities, the liabilities, 
and the weaknesses of the human system. It presents a 
new stand-point from which to survey the causes of disease, 
as well as the agencies employed for its cure and preven- 
tion. It gives us a clearer and better understanding of 
the principles of hygiene and sanitary law, and enjoins 
the absolute necessity of observing them, if good health 
and long life are to be secured. It shows that all the 
changes which occur in the human system are subject to 
law ; that disease, of whatever type and character, or 
wherever found, is a violation of law; and all treatment 
and remedies, whether provided by Nature or Art, must 
be viewed as agents or means to repair the injury. 

But there is one use to which this law may be applied 
of incalculable value ; we refer to life insurance. This is 
becoming an immense business; scarcely surpassed in 
interest and magnitude by that of any other in the 
country. From the best sources of information it is 
estimated that there are over five hundred thousand, or 
half a million, of lives insured in over two hundred 
different companies, and the amounts invested and at 
risk would startle one not accustomed to figures. The 
largest proportion of this business has sprung up within 
twenty or thirty years, and what is singular, the larger the 
business and the wider its expansion, the greater the 
changes in its management, and the more uncertain are 
its results. We should naturally suppose that time and 



THE LAW OF LONGEVITY. 73 

experience would give permanence and stability ; but what 
a sad spectacle is presented by the rise and fall of so many 
life insurance companies — some of them, too, after many 
years, apparently, of successful experience ! What a his- 
tory of wrecks, losses, and disappointments does it exhibit ! 
Scarcely can a parallel be found in the history of any other 
incorporated business in the country. 

In the examination of any organic structure, with ref- 
erence to forming an estimate of its continuance, we must 
understand correctly its nature and construction, as well 
as the laws that govern its action. If it is made up of 
many parts or distinct organs, we must comprehend fully 
their relations to each other and to external objects. But 
in order to make the best use of such knowledge, and 
form an intelligent estimate of results, we want some gen- 
eral law or standard of appeal, which shall be applicable 
to the whole. To any one acquainted with the earlier 
history of the different sciences, it is well known what 
great advantage was found when a large body of facts or 
amount of knowledge had been obtained ; that by the dis- 
covery of a general principle, all these facts and this 
knowledge could be more systematically arranged and 
satisfactorily explained. It is somewhat so in applying 
this law of longevity to life insurance, though it may be 
subject to many conditions and can not be reduced to 
mathematical accuracy. 

Prerequisites of Longevity. — Without explaining again 
this law and its conditions, let us briefly notice some of 
its applications in determining the prospect or continuance 
of life. All the essential elements or prerequisites for 
longevity may be conveniently arranged or summed up 
under three distinct heads, viz. : constitution, inheritance, 
and obedience to law. 

First. It furnishes the examiner for life insurance with 
a standard of organization, with which the constitution of 
6 



74 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

all persons examined may be compared, and which will 
assist in forming a correct judgment of their soundness, 
or in detecting the physical deviations from a normal 
standard ; then, what are the liabilities to disease, and 
what the prospects or probabilities of life. Without such 
a standard or guide we have no general rule to test the 
soundness or strength of the constitution. It must depend 
very much on opinion merely, which, of course, will vary 
according to the differences of judgment in different indi- 
viduals. With such a model constantly before us as 
Nature has furnished, we can understand more exactly 
and fully the relations which all parts or organs of the 
body sustain one to another, as well as to external nature ; 
and then we can calculate or forecast far better the changes 
to which they may be subjected. The more of such knowl- 
edge we possess, the more accurately can we estimate the 
continuance or prospect of life. 

Second. Long-lived Ancestry. — All writers upon life 
insurance lay great stress upon inheritance, or a long-lived 
ancestry. This has been found by universal experience to 
be one of the prerequisites — in fact, an indispensable 
condition of long life. Now, why — why is this so im- 
portant ? What are the reasons ? What does it mean ? 
What is the rationale of it, or what lessons does it teach ? 
Does it not clearly and distinctly imply, that if there is 
any truth in this power of inherited organization for long 
life (the more perfect the organization, the greater the 
power), there must certainly be found, somewhere in 
nature, a great general law of longevity ? The influences 
of hereditary descent have as yet received but little atten- 
tion, compared with their importance, even by the medical 
profession ; and before they can ever be thoroughly under- 
stood it will be found, if we mistake not, that there exists 
in physiology, as a fundamental principle, a general law of 
propagation, and as a part and parcel of the same will 



THE LAW OF LONGEVITY. 75 

also be found this law of longevity. In the matter of life 
insurance, a thorough knowledge of these hereditary in- 
fluences is of the utmost importance. 

Third. Conditions of Health. — Obedience to law. This 
has a very wide application, including all the physical 
laws and relations of body and mind. The better these 
laws and relations are understood, and the more strictly 
all are observed, the greater will be the amount of health, 
and the longer human life. But in order to effect this 
most successfully, the conditions of good health must 
first be fully understood, such as pure air and water, whole- 
some diet and drink, healthy vocation and residence, regu- 
lar exercise and sleep, temperate habits, right mental and 
moral culture, with a cheerful, contented disposition. 

Balance Among the Physical Functions. — Under this 
heading a friend has just placed in our hands the following 
testimony from Dr. H. C. Wood, professor in the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania : — 

" To make it possible to live to a good old age, the sev- 
eral vital organs must be approximately equal in strength. 
The man of ordinary physique, who possesses this for- 
tunate balance of power, will, in all probability, outlive an 
athlete, whose development has been unequal. Excessive 
strength in one part is, in fact, a source of danger. All 
overdeveloped muscular system invites dissolution, because 
it is a constant strain upon the less powerful organs, and 
finally wears them out. Death, in the majority of cases, 
is the result of local weakness. It often happens that a 
vital organ has been endowed with an original longevity 
less than that of the rest of the organism, and its failure 
to act brings death to other portions of the system, which 
in themselves possessed the capabilities of long life. The 
fact of having succeeded in life, with the satisfaction and 
comfort it brings, contributes to the prolongation of exist- 
ence, while failure, with its resultant regrets, tends to 
shorten it. In old age the organs possess less elasticity to 
meet and overcome such strains as can be invited with im- 
punity in youth. Hence the old should be spared strains." 



Duties of Medical Men. 



TT DISTINGUISHED French savant, not long since, in 
'^^ speaking of the personal influence of educated men, 
made this remark: "We must not live here in this world 
without leaving traces which shall make us to be remem- 
bered by posterity." This statement, on the first impres- 
sion, might seem rather presuming, if not arrogant ; but 
upon more reflection, we believe it indicates a purpose 
and determination that are commendable. And if this 
remark can properly or justly be applied to any class of 
educated men, it is surely to the members of the medical 
profession. 

Let us inquire, then, what are the reasons and what are 
the circumstances which justify such a statement. What 
are the relations, particularly, which medical men sustain 
to the public and posterity ? No man in this profession 
should rest satisfied with present attainments, nor allow 
himself to settle down in a mere routine course of study 
and practice. Not only in justice to himself, but for the 
public welfare, as well as for the good of posterity, he 
should do something more ; otherwise, he leaves no per- 
manent traces or marks by which he may hereafter be 
remembered. In the present state of medicine there are 
certain subjects that require of its cultivators special 
attention. At no former period in the history of medicine 
have the causes of disease been so carefully scrutinized, 
or in which greater advances have been made in this 
direction. Never was there a time when the natural laws 



DUTIES OF MEDICAL MEN. JJ 

of disease could be studied to so good advantage, — the 
primal cause and real nature of every distinct disease, — 
and to learn that the whole mystery concerning disease 
arises mainly from our ignorance. Never was there a time 
in medical history when we might understand so well the 
exact place and adaptation of medicine in the treatment 
of disease; to avoid the extremes, on the one hand, of 
over-medication, and on the other, the rejection of all 
medicine. 

The profession has been inclined, we think, in the past, 
to use altogether too much medicine, both in quantity and 
variety, which has produced serious evils. This practice 
has misled the members of the profession in placing too 
much confidence in the virtue of medicine, and not enough 
in the recuperative powers of Nature. It has also inspired 
the community with such unbounded confidence in medi- 
cine alone, that it is difficult to change their views and 
instil into their minds the value of sanitary influences. 
On the other hand, the physician who carefully studies 
into the causes of disease, and the laws that govern it, 
is apt to lose faith in medicine, and is liable to take radi- 
cal ground against the use of all medicine. A well- 
balanced, progressive mind will avoid either extreme. 

Here is a grand opportunity for a physician to do good 
service, to make his influence felt and known both in the 
profession and in the community. It is in the direction 
of improvement where advanced views in respect to medi- 
cal practice and the good of society can be entertained. 
In this way the medical student may establish landmarks 
which will cause him to be long remembered. If all dis- 
eases are the result of violating the laws of health and 
life, the symptoms are the indications or outward signs of 
this violation, and medicines are employed to aid in remov- 
ing or allaying the disturbances. 

Drugs can never mend broken limbs ; neither can they 



y8 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

restore the system to a perfectly sound and healthy state, 
when its inherent laws have been repeatedly violated. 
Nor can disease be rationally and successfully treated, 
until its causes and nature are better understood. Medi- 
cal practice can never be reduced to a true system of art 
or science until the causes and laws of diseased action are 
better understood. 

A most important field of study is opened in this direc- 
tion, in which an inquiring mind may do immense good. 
It is true, researches have here been made by many stu- 
dents, but there is still room for further explorations. 
Men in the profession, , both in England and in this 
country, are waking up more and more to inquiries of 
this kind. Marks will here be made which will be remem- 
bered. 

Closely connected with this improved rational treatment 
of disease is a most interesting field opening for study 
and influence, — that is, the prevention of disease. For- 
merly cure was the supreme, if not the leading, object of 
the physician, but the time is fast approaching when pre- 
vention will be the watchword. 

What can you do to prevent disease ?- This requires 
study, thought, and a sincere love of humanity. There is 
here a great work for the medical profession, and it is the 
duty of its members — a duty which they owe to them- 
selves and to the public — to engage earnestly in such 
work. This can be done in a variety of ways, — in daily 
private practice and by seizing every opportunity to en- 
lighten the community on the subject by speech or by 
the pen. 

Here the thoughtful and progressive physician can 
exert great influence and establish landmarks which will 
long be remembered. In fact, no one question is coming 
before the public of such vital importance and magnitude 
as this prevention of disease under the head of sanitary 



DUTIES OF MEDICAL MEN. 79 

science. The principles of this science are based on the 
laws of physiology. While there has been no change in 
the functions of physiology, there have been discovered 
new or far more important relations, as it respects health, 
between this science and objects external to the body. 

There is a natural adaptation between certain organs in 
the human system and outward objects, which, if brought 
into their true relation, are healthful and normal. Pure 
air, pure water, and pure soil, representing the externals 
on the one hand, and on the other, physical exercise, 
proper diet, and suitable clothing, representing the body, 

— these constitute the ground-work, the pillars, of sanitary 
science. These apply to human life in all its connections 
and aspects. They include nearly every agency and in- 
fluence operating upon the growth and development of 
the body, or upon the occupation and pursuit of every 
individual, or upon the food, drink, and home life, his 
place of residence, and dwelling. They cover the whole 
ground of his education, — physical, intellectual, and moral, 

— and his religious being, whether they harmonize with 
the laws of physical organization. 

But the principles of sanitary science have a far wider 
scope than the individual, — they extend to the family, to 
the school, to the state, and to the church. They take 
cognizance of all the agencies connected with those great 
centers of power and influence, in order to determine their 
sanitary effect on the human system — whether healthful 
and normal, or hurtful and injurious. 

In each one of those centers the principles of sanitary 
science as based on physiology must be brought to bear 
with far greater force and effect than at any former period. 
There are questions involving the highest interests of all 
those institutions which are comparatively new in their 
application, and which no man can discuss so well as a 
thoroughly educated physician. 



80 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Among those questions the following may be men- 
tioned : Notwithstanding the family is an old institution, 
and its lines or objects might seem to be well defined, still 
we think there are some things here to learn in the appli- 
cation of physiological laws. This institution is based 
upon physiology as well as revelation. It can be demon- 
strated, we believe, from the principles of this science, 
that the human body can not reach its highest develop- 
ment, neither can the race be perpetuated in its best es- 
tate, without just such an institution as the family. It 
can, moreover, be demonstrated from the same source that 
the primal objects of the family are three-fold : I, produc- 
tion of children ; 2, chastity ; and 3, mutual help and com- 
pany ; and, if there is a failure in either one of these, by 
design or defective organization, it goes so far to break 
down the family relation. 

Closely connected with this institution is another sub- 
ject of vital importance — that is, the laws of inheritance. 
No one but a medical man, or thorough physiologist, can 
understand so well these laws. From proper investiga- 
tion these will be found to compose a part and parcel of a 
great law of propagation, which is a general and funda- 
mental truth. 

Physiology is yet in its infancy as respects some of its 
most important applications. The time will come when 
the duty and agency of man in respect to observing hered- 
itary laws will be far better understood than at the present 
time. Closely connected with the family is still another 
question, which has, within a few years, attracted much 
attention — that is, woman's position and rights. The set- 
tlement of some points in this controversy involves certain 
physiological laws which persons thoroughly versed in the 
principles of this science can alone discuss understand- 
ing^- 

Radical changes in woman's position, employment, and 



DUTIES OF MEDICAL MEN. 8 1 

relations in society, must change more or less her organi- 
zation, and consequently certain mental qualities, which 
may affect sensibly the marriage rate and the stability of 
the family. 

It may be premature to forecast what those changes 
will be, or inquire what will be their effects, but there are 
physiological problems involved here, we believe, which are 
fundamental, and should come under the review particu- 
larly of the medical profession. Some of these questions 
in dispute can never be settled by the opinions of individ- 
uals, nor by the resolutions of conventions, but by great 
principles based upon physical organization. Here is an 
opportunity for the members of our profession to settle 
questions which will long be remembered. 

New and important questions also are raised in respect 
to schools, which partake of a physiological and sanitary 
character. It is maintained that the mind is being edu- 
cated at the expense of the body, or, in other words, that 
the physical development is too much neglected. Such is 
the whole course of education in our schools and higher 
institutions of learning, that it causes an undue develop- 
ment of the brain and nervous system, while the exercise 
of the muscles and other portions of the body is neglected. 
Hence there is not that physical strength and energy, that 
vital force and power of endurance to meet the demands 
which circumstances and society make upon educated per- 
sons. 

What is most needed in all our educational institutions 
is a well-balanced, symmetrical development of the whole 
body, which affords not only the greatest amount of physi- 
cal capital, but the best ground-work for mental labor and 
success. To this end the principles of physiology must be 
better understood and more generally applied. 

Here is most important work for the physician, where 
he can make his influence felt and remembered. In our 



82 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

common schools and educational institutions, there is great 
need of a more thorough application of the principles of 
sanitary science. The matter of ventilation, of tempera- 
ture, and drainage connected with school-houses, and 
hours for study, physical exercises, and means of recrea- 
tion on the part of pupils — these involve sanitary laws 
and demand the special attention of medical men. 

Many in our high schools, colleges, seminaries, and 
universities are constantly suffering from the violation of 
these laws. There is a large expenditure of means, time, 
and labor from ignorance on this subject, which is worse 
than wasted. 

The great objects of education are thus defeated ; in 
many cases weakness, disease, and premature death are 
produced. Here is a wide range for the application of the 
principles of physiology and sanitary science. It opens a 
large, a most promising field for medical men to enter and 
cultivate. Influences and improvements may here be 
started which will transmit their benefits to future gener- 
ations. 

There is another great center of power and influence — 
the State — which stands in pressing need of medical 
knowledge. 

In consequence of discoveries in science and the ad- 
vances in civilization, new questions are coming up for 
legislation. 

It is found that the health and lives of the people must 
be subjects of legislation as well as property and material 
interests. To this end pure air, pure water, and a clean 
soil must be provided. The question of preventing disease 
on a large scale is becoming an important subject for 
legislation. Perhaps nowhere can a medical man do so 
much good as in the halls of legislation, in devising and 
enacting laws for promoting the health and the highest 
welfare of the people. 



DUTIES OF MEDICAL MEN. 83 

The more thoroughly the causes of disease are under- 
stood, together with the laws of health, the more clearly 
do we see how far the preservation of health and life de- 
pend upon human agency. Hence the need of increased 
intelligence on this subject, and also that new and im- 
portant legislation should take place. 

In France, Germany, and Great Britain, the medical 
profession have had far more to do than in this country 
in government matters, and in the establishment and 
management of public institutions. 

Members of the profession have held in those nations 
some of the highest official positions, have been leaders in 
public affairs, and exercised a commanding influence in 
every department of society. It may safely be said, we 
think, that the medical profession has held its way there 
in position and general influence with either of the other 
professions, and the chances at the present time would in- 
dicate that it was destined to rise still higher and higher. 

While the government and the state of society are very 
different in this country, and there may be other extenu- 
ating circumstances, the medical profession, if we are not 
mistaken, ranks below the other professions in pub- 
lic estimation and general influence ; it may, in a few 
localities, have a leading influence and command much 
respect, but we must admit that on the whole the profes- 
sion in the United States has not possessed that wide 
extent of knowledge, those high scientific attainments and 
general weight of character which are found abroad. 

The question very naturally arises, why this difference 
in the standing and influence of the medical profession ? 
Some reasons may readily be given. In the nations men- 
tioned, the profession is much older ; its members are bet- 
ter compensated for services rendered ; many medical men 
inherit wealth, which gives them leisure ; then in commu- 
nities abroad there exists, generally, a higher appreciation 



84 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

of medical skill and knowledge, as well of scientific and 
literary attainments. But, after all, the fault in this 
country rests much with the profession itself. Its mem- 
bers have not been trained with reference to securing 
great distinction in knowledge, in science, and education ; 
neither while engaged in professional duties have they 
been encouraged to put themselves in the way of promi- 
nent positions connected with public institutions, or with 
the state or national government. It would seem as 
though there had been an admission on the part of the 
profession, if not an understanding in the community, that 
medical men could not leave their duties for public life, 
either to become scholars, authors, or statesmen. 

If the promotion of public health or sanitary interests 
were made as prominent in our country as they are in 
Great Britain, medical men, in far greater numbers, would 
be called into public life. The time is coming, however, 
when this will be demanded. But the responsibility rests 
much upon the profession. Its members must make them- 
selves more thoroughly acquainted with physiology and 
sanitary science in their relations to public health and the 
welfare of mankind generally. Its members must not be 
so much absorbed in seeking a mere support, or in the 
accumulation of wealth, but must listen more to the calls 
of humanity, to the demands of the age, and to the good 
of coming generations. 

It is by such means that the profession will command 
greater respect in the community, will exert a more bene- 
ficial influence on the public, and leave marks which will 
long be remembered. The leading object of the Academy 
of Medicine is expressed in these words: "To extend 
the bounds of medical science, to elevate the profession, to 
relieve human suffering, and prevent disease." The sug- 
gestions made in this paper are calculated, we think, to 
promote every one of the objects here mentioned. If the 



DUTIES OF MEDICAL MEN. 85 

medical profession is elevated to a higher plane and wider 
influence, the bounds of medical science must be extended 
in every direction, which, at the same time, can not fail to 
relieve suffering and prevent disease on a large scale. If 
the fields suggested in this paper for medical researches 
and labors could be thoroughly cultivated it would re- 
dound greatly, not only to the credit of the profession, but 
work out most beneficent results. Never were the calls 
more urgent for such work, never were the times so pro- 
pitious, never were the prospects of a rich harvest so fa- 
vorable. Will the members of our profession respond to 
those calls, honor themselves in this work, and do justice 
to medical science and the cause of humanity ? 



Sanitary Science, 



Its History, its Relation to Medicine and the 
Medical Profession. 



mHAT is sanitary science ? This phrase is compar- 
atively new, but is full of meaning. The word 
" sanitary," in its derivation and uses, signifies health or 
healthy, but when combined with science is far more ex- 
pressive. It means the application of laws or principles 
for the preservation of health in whatever way they may 
be employed. As to the use of the term " science" here, 
the claim can not be justly called Li question. To such an 
extent have these principles been discovered and applied, 
and so uniformly and certainly have the same results fol- 
lowed, that they may be said to constitute a science — the 
science of health. 

It is not necessary that these laws should be understood 
by every body, and admitted as true, that they may be con- 
sidered a science ; but if they have been extensively 
applied by a large number of good judges, and the same 
results never fail, they constitute, when combined, 
literally and truly a scie?ice — as much so as physiology 
or biology. As both these are comparatively modern 
sciences, so is that of sanitation, certainly in name and 
application. 

It is only about forty years since this subject began to 
attract general attention. It started with the establish- 



SANITARY SCIENCE. 87 

ment of the registration of births, deaths, and marriages, 
in Great Britain, by Dr. William Farr. While investigat- 
ing upon a large scale the causes of death, the inquiry 
naturally arose, What can be done to prevent, as well as to 
cure, disease? This inquiry, so simple and natural, has 
resulted in a most surprising advance in the knowledge of 
the laws of health and life. So rapid and extensive have 
been these changes that one living during this period can 
hardly credit them ; and never were there improvements 
taking place faster than at the present day. But the ad- 
vantages already secured, though great and invaluable, are 
mere harbingers of richer and more permanent blessings 
in store. In the progress of this science, every year has 
signalized the past, that it had a deeper and broader scope, 
not so much in improving the old methods of work, but in 
entering into new fields and enlisting new agencies. Its 
aim is not merely to remove the existing causes of dis- 
eases, but to destroy the germs or seeds of disease. It 
does not stop with preventing this or that contagious dis- 
ease, or reduce to the minimum the zymotic class of 
diseases ; but when the principles of this science are ap- 
plied to the fullest extent, they will present the human 
body so sound and healthy in all its parts as in a great 
measure to forestall disease. 

There is, we believe, a normal standard of physiology, 
where all the organs are so sound and well-balanced, and 
where all perform respectively their functions so thor- 
oughly as to afford small chances for disease. This organ- 
ization represents the highest standard of health, and the 
nearer the human body in all its parts approximates this 
standard, the better or higher degree of health shall every 
such person possess. With this view of physiology, it will 
be seen that all disease is a violation of law, whether it 
arose from internal or external cause. As there must be 
some change in the structure or functions of certain or- 



88 . PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

gans in the body for the introduction of disease, is it not 
clearly the province of sanitary science to take cognizance 
of such changes ? If the violations of law can be arrested 
or modified in the very first stages, may it not serve tc 
prevent a vast amount of disease? 

There is a sphere higher and broader, where the princi- 
ples of this science should be brought to bear — that is, in 
perfecting the human body. It is well known that there 
is naturally a most surprising difference between one indi- 
vidual, or one family, and another, as to good health and 
the liabilities to disease. Why should not sanitary science 
recognize this difference more, and point out the way 
whereby great improvements can be made in the physical 
system, and then eradicate, upon a larger scale, the first, 
the primary causes of disease ? By commencing early, and 
with the use of proper means, the organization of every 
individual can be greatly improved and made more 
healthy ; and by a proper application of the laws of inheri- 
tance for three or four generations, human organization 
may become so perfected as to diminish a large proportion 
of the sickness and disease that exist at the present day. 
This is not mere theory nor speculation, but a doctrine 
based upon the laws of physiology — laws which should be 
better understood. Inasmuch as such a change would be 
productive of sanitation in the highest degree, is it not the 
province of sanitary science to enter and cultivate this 
field ? Would it not improve health and prolong life upon 
the largest scale and to the greatest number ? What 
other science or agency can do this work so well ? That 
human organization can be improved by the laws of exer- 
cise, nutrition, and inheritance, there can be no question. 
If the highest state of health depends on a normal stand- 
ard of physiology, in which all parts of the body are perfect 
in structure, combined with a harmonious development of 
every organ, it is certainly the province of sanitary science 



SANITARY SCIENCE. 89 

to use all its appliances to obtain that standard. It is no 
more nor less than the same form or image in which man 
was created ; and the same Almighty power has estab- 
lished laws by the use of which man, in the process of 
time, can attain to that of his original creation. The more 
thoroughly physiology is studied with reference to sanita- 
tion, the stronger is the evidence that man is the artificer 
of his own physical well-being. The laws of inheritance 
must become the agents of sanitary science ; and healthy 
offspring must become an object of primary importance. 
When the principles of physiology and sanitary science 
are both brought to bear in renovating human organiza- 
tion, we shall find that a wise provision is made for the 
redemption of the body as well as the soul. We can not 
expect this change will be brought about by divine inter- 
ference, nor is it left for accident or chance, but the means 
and responsibility are wisely placed in the hands and 
power of human agency. 

In case the body is thus reconstructed — made sound 
and healthy in every part — the germs or seeds of disease 
will not be found in the system. Here is work for sani- 
tary science on the largest possible scale. In making 
these changes, in order to secure the highest standard of 
health and to the greatest number, it will be seen that 
sanitary science has a great work to do. The whole sys- 
tem of education, especially in early life, must be based 
more and more upon the systematic training and develop- 
ment of the body. There are a multitude of evils in the 
present state of society that conflict with the laws of 
health and life, which sanitary science would remove or 
regulate. Then, in all matters pertaining to mental im- 
provement, to the progress of society, to every phase in 
civilization and the various developments of Christianity, 
the sanitation of the body and of the mind must be para- 
mount to every thing else. In fact, the province of sani- 

7 



90 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

tary science covers the entire life ; not only of every indi- 
vidual, but of the whole human race. No other subject or 
science is of such transcendent importance. It is in its 
infancy, and no comparison can be made between what it 
now is and the magnificent proportions it is destined to 
attain. 

Taking this view of physiology, and that health is its 
normal condition, it will be seen that all deviations from 
this state, or violations of the laws that govern it, furnish 
the causes or entrance of weaknesses, imperfections, and 
diseases which afflict the human system. These changes 
may occur from internal, predisposing causes, or from 
agents operating externally to the body. Just at this 
point, in these changes of organization from a normal to 
an abnormal state, we are taught most important lessons. 
On one side we have sanitation and sanitary science ; on 
the other disease and its superstructure, medicine. Just 
here start the most powerful and destructive evils that 
ever befell the human family. These evils may be trifling 
in their origin, but increase — sometimes slowly, some- 
times rapidly — and become terrible in their results. They 
include the whole catalogue of diseases ; their name is 
legion. We dwell on this point, for it is very important 
to have clear and definite ideas of disease, its nature, and 
cause. It is simply the penalty of violated law. There is 
no mystery in it ; no visitation of Divine Providence ; no 
curse inflicted by some evil spirit. It is no less important 
for sanitarians than for physicians to have a clear and 
definite knowledge of disease as well as its cause. 

HISTORY OF SANITARY SCIENCE. 

Formerly the great object of the medical profession was 
the cure of disease. The programme of studies and lectures 
in the medical schools was confined almost exclusively to 
this one idea. The term "hygiene" was scarcely to be 



SANITARY SCIENCE. 9 1 

found in books, or referred to in lectures. Physiology was 
comparatively a new science, and some of its most impor- 
tant applications have not been discovered till within a 
few years. In fact, this science can not be fully under- 
stood in all its bearings without combining with it the 
principles of hygiene. 

The study of physiology was formerly superficial, rather 
than profound ; as the laws of health and life are based on 
this science, these, of course, were not very well under- 
stood. Hence there was great difficulty in ascertaining 
the real causes of disease and the natural laws that gov- 
erned it. Health and its normal conditio7is must be first 
understood, and disease — its causes and treatment — come 
afterward. Very little thought or attention was given to 
the object paramount to all others : health and its require- 
ments. The whole burden of medical studies and lectures 
was pursued with special reference to disease and its treat- 
ment. Thus in the preparation for the practice of medi- 
cine, the treatment of disease has so completely absorbed 
attention that normal physiology and the recuperating 
powers of Nature have, in a measure, been overlooked. 
" Vis medicatrix " was a favorite phrase of some writers, 
but very little use has been made of its practical applica- 
tion. Two great evils have grown out of this defective 
mode of education: ist, a lack of clear and definite ideas 
of diseases and their causes ; and 2d, a tendency, in the 
treatment of disease, to resort mainly to artificial means. 
But within thirty or forty years there has been decided 
improvement in respect to both these evils. 

From 1840-50 several leading physicians in Great 
Britain, from careful observation and reflection, began to 
make some changes in their practice : ist, to dispense less 
medicine ; 2d, to study more carefully into the natural 
laws of disease ; and 3d, to summon to their aid the pow- 
erful resources of Nature. Among these physicians were 



92 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

John Forbes, John Connolly, Andrew Combe, and others. 
The British and Foreign Medical Review was their organ 
of publication, which attracted much attention. Several 
works explaining the views ot these men were published 
at that time, and had a large circulation. 

From 1840 to 1850 the registrar-general's office for col- 
lecting and publishing births, marriages, and deaths in 
Great Britain became fairly established. This agency has 
been more influential than any other for creating an inter- 
est in sanitary matters. An examination into the causes 
of death in different localities, and a comparison of the 
mortality in one place with another, started many inquiries 
on public health. The annual reports, also from this office, 
prepared by Dr. William Farr, added greatly to the inter- 
est on this subject. About the same period Dr. Andrew 
Combe, of Edinburgh, published several works on the ap- 
plication of physiology to education and health. These 
works had a very large circulation, and exerted great influ- 
ence in directing public attention to the laws of health and 
life. The writings of Dr. A. Combe were peculiarly calcu- 
lated to show the advantages of a practical knowledge of 
physiology for developing healthy bodies, and thereby pre- 
venting disease. While the writings of Doctor Combe 
were based strictly on scientific principles, they were re- 
markably well adapted, both in style and matter, to in- 
struct the masses. 

One of the most distinguished physicians at this time in 
Great Britain, advocating reform in medical practice, was 
Dr. John Forbes. In his celebrated paper called " Young 
Physic," which was published in the British and Foreign 
Medical Review, he made this significant statement : "Re- 
doubled attention should be directed to hygiene, public 
and private, with a view of preventing diseases on a large 
scale, and individually in our sphere of practice. Here 
the surest and most glorious triumphs of medical practice 



SANITARY SCIENCE. 93 

are to be achieved." If this prophecy has not already been 
fulfilled, it is very evident that, in progress of time, it will 
be still more abundantly. 

As a result of the interest on this subject, a royal com- 
mission was appointed in 1857, to inquire into the sanitary 
condition of the army in England. This commission rec- 
ommended that not only some regulations should be 
adopted for protecting the health of the army, but that a 
school be established for educating army-surgeons, in 
which "hygiene and sanitary science" should be taught. 
This was the nucleus or starting-point of that celebrated 
work on practical hygiene by Dr. Edmund A. Parks. 
This "Manual of Practical Hygiene," constituting a treas- 
ury of knowledge on sanitation, has had a large circulation, 
and passed through several editions. 

The interest in sanitary matters has been steadily in- 
creasing in Great Britain among all classes. Its fruits are 
becoming every year more and more manifest by im- 
proved health generally, and by a reduction of mortality, 
especially in cities. Numerous acts of parliament have 
been passed in favor of sanitary science. The medical 
profession and journals generally commend it; and never 
were its prospects brighter in Great Britain than at the 
present time. 

Perhaps the science has not created so general interest, 
nor taken so strong a hold, in the United States as it has 
in Great Britain ; but still its history is one of marked in- 
terest. Let us notice a few of its salient points. From 
1830 to 1840 Dr. John Bell conducted the Journal of 
Health, in Philadelphia, which very ably advocated the 
principles of hygiene. In 1835 Dr. Jacob Bigelow, in the 
annual address before the Massachusetts Medical society, 
pronounced a certain class of diseases "self-limited" in 
their character, and urged that they should be treated ac- 
cordingly. This was a marked step in the way of medical 



94 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

reform, which, with other influences, led to what was 
called the "expectant treatment of disease." 

In 1842 was issued the first registration-report of births, 
marriages, and deaths in Massachusetts, and these have been 
continued annually, till we have now the forty-fourth report. 
Sanitary science has been greatly advanced by facts and 
arguments derived from these reports. Several other 
states have followed the course of Massachusetts, in estab- 
lishing registration-departments. No one agency can do so 
much to advance the cause of vital statistics as such regis- 
tration-reports. The application and progress of sanitary 
science depend much upon a knowledge of vital statistics ; 
and the more thoroughly these are understood, the better 
for sanitation. 

In 1844 Dr. Elisha Bartlett published in Philadelphia a 
work on the " Philosophy of Medical Science," and, in 
urging upon the profession a better knowledge of the 
cause and nature of disease, said: "The next thing to be 
done is to find, out the best methods of modifying and pre- 
venting disease. This is the great mission which now lies 
immediately before us ; this is to constitute the great work 
of the next and succeeding generations." This statement 
was made two years before that of Doctor Forbes, already 
quoted. Both these men, living in advance of the times, 
were distinguished for original thought and independence 
of expression ; they have proved themselves true prophets. 

In i860 one of the most brilliant addresses ever given 
in this country was delivered before the Massachusetts 
Medical society by Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes. As this 
had a direct tendency to promote sanitary science, the ad- 
dress and its reception deserve special notice. At this 
time the importance of a more thorough study of Nature 
in medical practice had been urged on the profession in 
previous addresses and other medical papers published. 
In pursuing this line of thought, Doctor Holmes expressed 



SANITARY SCIENCE. 95 

very positive opinions, accompanied with reasons and 
illustrations, that too much medicine altogether was given 
by the profession, and that there were great evils arising 
from over-medication. For this opinion, Doctor Holmes 
was not only severely criticised by prominent physicians, 
but denounced and abused, if harsh language could do it. 
But reaction soon followed this violent attack. The dis- 
cussion led many physicians to a new and more careful 
study of the natural laws of disease and the true effects 
of drugs. Great good came out of this controversy. 
Doctor Holmes, instead of being injured, gathered new 
laurels. Many young physicians, seeing the propriety and 
force of his strictures, struck out a new course in their 
practice. 

The most effective agents of all, for establishing and 
applying the principles of sanitary science, are boards of 
health. The first state board of health in this country 
was formed in Massachusetts in 1869, since which time 
boards have been started in nearly all the states of the 
Union. In 1872 the American Health association was 
organized in New York. This is the most extensive and 
powerful agency of the kind in this country, and we think 
we may safely say in the world. It has published twelve 
large volumes, which contain a greater and more valuable 
collection of papers on sanitation than can anywhere else 
be found. The primary object of the association, as stated 
in its constitution, is the "advancement of sanitary 
science." A careful examination of the contents of these 
volumes affords the strongest possible evidence that the 
association has done a grand work. Here almost every 
question connected with the science, in all its diversified 
applications, is found discussed. Some of the papers 
show great research and an originality of thought which 
might be elaborated into a volume. Besides its published 
works, the association has greatly advanced the interests 



g6 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

of sanitary science in all the cities and states where it has 
held its annual meetings. 

RELATIONS OF SANITARY SCIENCE TO THE PROFESSION. 

While the success of this science depends mainly upon 
physicians, there is a wide difference in the interest which 
they take in it, as well as the sacrifices which they are 
willing to make for it. Let us inquire who, and how 
many, of our physicians have been actively engaged in 
this reformatory work. The number, compared with the 
whole profession, is small, — in fact, is very small. Those 
engaged in this work are widely scattered, both in city and 
country, and are generally active with the pen and tongue, 
so that they seem more numerous than they really are. 
There are, it is true, great numbers in the medical pro- 
fession who are kindly disposed to sanitary reform, and 
speak highly of it in their practice, but, at the same time, 
are unwilling to make much sacrifice to advance its 
interests. 

Unlike many other reforms and good works, there is a 
direct antagonism between the interests of this profession 
and sanitation. The support of this profession depends 
mainly on the cure of disease, not its prevention. Every 
step in this reform diminishes more or less professional 
income. There is no trade or speculation in this reform. 
When a person has spent years in study, and made large 
investments to secure a livelihood, how can we expect he 
will sacrifice these interests ? There is probably no class 
of men, engaged in professional or other kinds of busi- 
ness, to whom appeals of so complex and antagonistic 
character are made for services. The success depends 
much upon the education and the moral training of the 
parties. 

On one side stands out the highest welfare of the in- 
dividual and society, in respect to health, while on the 



SANITARY SCIENCE. 97 

other side the physician is tempted to make his own in- 
terests paramount to all others. 

Let us for a moment consider his position. In choosing 
this profession the pecuniary considerations were undoubt- 
edly most powerful ; and then, in his early preparations 
and through his whole course of study, compensation for 
professional services has been constantly kept in mind. 
The whole drift of medical study and teaching, by sick- 
ness or from books, has express reference to the treatment 
and cure of disease, — not, as we may say, its prevention. 
Add to this the most implicit faith that all classes gener- 
ally have in drugs, together with the crowded state of the 
profession, it will be seen that the physician is virtually 
constrained to have an eye constantly on his business. It 
is true that in medical studies, lectures, and books a great 
deal is said about the charitable aspects of the profession, 
and that it is always expected to give a large amount of 
service to the poor. 

It is just to state here that the claims of the sick-poor 
have been most liberally responded to by physicians, and 
that no other profession or class of men do so much for 
the poor as the medical profession. But this work of 
charity has its equivalents : it secures to the physician a 
stronger hold in the affection and confidence of the people, 
and, in different ways, tends to increase his business. 
But to engage actively in means to prevent disease, not 
simply in one instance, but in case of great numbers, this 
is very different, — it cuts off directly the support of the 
physician. Such action is based upon a love of humanity, 
— of philanthropy, — a higher range of motive than that 
of giving services to the sick-poor. It appeals to the very 
highest class of motives, — not simply to save expense and 
relieve suffering, or improve health and prolong life, but 
to elevate mankind and increase, physically, mentally, and 
morally, the sum of human happiness. Such are the 
legitimate fruits of sanitary science. 



98 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Considering the powerful pecuniary interests of the 
profession, and the disinterested motives requisite to en- 
gage in sanitation work, it is rather surprising that so 
many members of the profession have from time to time 
engaged heartily in advancing sanitary science. The main 
object must have been the promotion of health, the dif- 
fusion of useful knowledge, and the enlightenment of 
mankind generally in respect to the laws of health and 
life. In some few instances it might have been prompted 
by pecuniary considerations, — the individual holding some 
official position, or seeking one. But these are exceptional 
cases. Our state and municipal authorities have made 
such small appropriations for public health, that the sal- 
aries offered to medical men are not numerous or large 
enough to be very attractive. In this respect Great 
Britain is far ahead of us. The promotion of the public 
health has become there a part of her government ma- 
chinery. The whole kingdom is divided into some fifteen 
hundred districts, over each of which a medical officer of 
health is appointed, with salary graded according to the 
services rendered. Besides this provision, and showing 
the interest of the government in sanitary matters, there 
are over one thousand inspectors of nuisance appointed, 
in charge of as many districts. This inspection proves 
of great advantage, not only directly in preventing dis- 
ease, but by dispersing information among the people, 
they become helpers in the work. 

The medical appointments in Great Britain are made 
on the ground of special training and qualifications for 
this kind of work, and the same persons are continued in 
office for years. Thus there is a wide difference between 
the interest in sanitary science in Great Britain and in 
the United States. In the former the science receives a 
powerful support from the government, and a large amount 
of means is annually distributed among its advocates. Be- 
sides, there is on the part of the people more general 



SANITARY SCIENCE. 99 

intelligence on the subject, — a higher appreciation of the 
benefits of the science, and a more ready disposition to 
co-operate in carrying on the reform. Though the science 
has been making advances in these respects in the United 
States, there is much room for improvement. Our 
national government is not doing what it ought for public 
health ; neither are the state or municipal authorities 
making the appropriations for it which they should. 

Most of the contributions to sanitary science here have 
been voluntary. This reform has been carried forward by 
men heartily interested in the work, — very few seeking 
or expecting any remuneration. The reward for such 
services does not consist in dollars and cents, nor in the 
plaudits of the multitude, but in "the consciousness of 
duty done and noble deeds performed." 

A distinguished medical writer lately made this remark : 
" The most important work that sanitarians are doing at 
the present day 'is sowing seed, which in time will yield 
abundant harvest.' " And never in the history of medi- 
cine was there such a combination of circumstances so 
favorable to improvement in the practice of medicine. 
Never before has there been such earnest inquiry made on 
the part of the profession to ascertain the true causes of 
disease. It has been found in the moral world that in 
order to eradicate great evils, their primary causes must 
be first removed. So in the prevention of disease, the 
same course must be taken. This accords with the teach- 
ings of sanitary science. Leading members of the medi- 
cal profession have here been doing noble work. 

SANITARY SCIENCE AND MEDICINE. 

Some twenty-five years ago Sir Joseph Lister, of Edin- 
burgh, made a great discovery for the prevention of disease 
by introducing what has been called " antiseptic surgery." 
It had been found, prior to that time, that wounds and 



100 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

surgical operations were frequently followed by an inflam- 
mation which proved fatal. Surgeon Lister discovered 
that, by an application of antiseptic dressings, patients 
were more sure to recover from the most dangerous oper- 
ations. It is, moreover, found that antiseptics can be 
applied to many diseases, as well as to surgical cases, 
which checks their progress and aids essentially in the 
recovery. It is now admitted that a great amount of 
disease is thus prevented, and a multitude of lives may be 
saved. 

Again : in this same line of prevention there has been 
made, within a few years, one of the greatest discoveries 
ever made in the history of medicine, — that some of the 
most dangerous diseases are produced by infinitely small 
animalculae, called bacteria, and other micro-organisms. 
This subject is now undergoing most thorough investiga- 
tion in Germany, France, and Great Britain. If means 
can be devised whereby these bacteria can be destroyed, 
or their existence eradicated from the system, it will pre- 
vent a vast amount of disease. 

Again : there seems to be a prevailing impression in 
the medical profession that important changes are about 
to take place in the treatment of diseases. This senti- 
ment is foreshadowed in a variety of ways, and many facts 
and illustrations might be cited in proof of the same. 
The most noticeable instance is the following : Dr. Austin 
Flint, of New York, was invited last year (1886) by the 
British Medical association to give an address in 1887 
before that body. Doctor Flint died suddenly in March, 
but his address, by singular forethought, was found pre- 
pared for this occasion, which has since been published. 
The very title of the paper is significant, — "Medicine of 
the Future." 

No physician in the United States could discuss this 
subject with greater propriety and force than Doctor Flint, 



SANITARY SCIENCE. 10 1 

and, inasmuch as he was to voice the medical profession 
in this country, before the highest medical body in Great 
Britain, it shows the importance he attached to this topic 
in its selection. At the same time, in presenting these 
views, he must have been pretty well assured that they 
would be cordially received by the leading members of 
that association. After recounting in the forepart of this 
address the changes that had taken place in his own ex- 
perience in medical practice, he says : " We are entering 
upon a revolution in medicine. It is bewildering to pro- 
ject the thoughts into the future in order to foresee the 
changes which will be brought about in the coming half- 
century in our knowledge of the correction of diseases, and 
the results as regards their prevention and treatment." 

He expresses the opinion that hygienic agencies will be 
employed hereafter far more than they have been; that the 
normal conditions of health and the recuperative powers 
of Nature will receive greater attention, and less depen- 
dence will be placed upon drugs and other artificial means. 
In referring to bacterial etiology, he says : " Here open to 
the imagination the future triumphs of preventive med- 
icine in respect to all classes of diseases." When the 
medical profession, says he, " shall employ all the preven- 
tive measures possible and the best remedial medicines, 
disease will be more successfully treated, and the profes- 
sion will have reached a high ideal position." Alongside 
of this testimony we will quote the opinions of three dis- 
tinguished English physicians who have given special at- 
tention for many years to sanitary science. 

Says Dr. B. W. Richardson : " The influence which san- 
itation will exert in the future over the science and art of 
medicine, promises to be momentous. It promises noth- 
ing less than the development of a new era ; nor is it at all 
wide of the mark to say that such new era has fairly com- 
menced. With the progress of sanitary science we must 



102 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

expect to see preventive medicine taking the ascendency. 
With true nobleness of purpose, true medicine has been 
the first to strip herself of all mere pretenses to cure, and 
has stood boldly forward to declare as a higher philosophy 
the prevention of disease. The doctrine of absolute faith 
in the principle of prevention indicates the existence of a 
high order of thought, of broad views on life and health, 
on diseases and their external origin, on death and its cor- 
rect place in Nature." 

Says Dr. Alfred Carpenter : " The science of disease- 
prevention is destined to alter the whole field of medical 
practice ; to render obsolete much of our present knowl- 
edge as to the history of diseases and the measures which 
are now required for their treatment. The inquiry must 
come as to how the increase of disease is to be prevented, 
rather than, having arisen, how it is to be cured. This 
will apply to every kind of complaint, and will not be lim- 
ited to any one class." 

Says Sir Henry Acland : " In addition to treatment and 
cure of disease, whatever be the duty of individuals, med- 
ical science and art collectively must aim as a whole — 1st, 
At the preservation of health ; 2d, At the averting of dis- 
ease from individuals and the public generally ; 3d, At 
rearing healthy progeny for the family and the state by 
probing the laws of inheritance ; and, 4th, At procuring 
legislation effectual to these ends. It claims, therefore, a 
voice in moral education as well as physical training. It 
holds a duty in relation to the diminution of vice, for the 
sake not only of self-destroying victims, but more for the 
sake of the innocents whom they ignorantly slay." 

It would seem that in the opinion of Doctor Acland sani- 
tary science covers very important ground. This opinion 
may be accounted for in part from the fact that he has 
long been a professor at the Oxford University, — has had 
large experience in educational matters, and understands 



SANITARY SCIENCE. 103 

the full import of physiological laws. If the preservation 
of health or the prevention of disease is accomplished by 
improving the organization, a multitude of other improve- 
ments follow, and the more perfect the former the greater 
will be the latter. 

There is one method of preventing disease, referred to by 
Doctor Acland and other writers, which has never received 
the attention it deserves — that is by the observance of the 
laws of inheritance. Within a few years this subject has 
been considerably discussed in the United States and 
Great Britain, but few seem to appreciate fully the magni- 
tude of its bearings on sanitation. The diseases consid- 
ered preventable, — of which there are nine or ten — come 
under the zymotic class, but there are two other classes, 
called constitutional and local, each larger than the 
zymotic. Thus far, sanitary science has expended its 
principal force upon this class ; but supposing its agencies 
could be brought to bear equally upon the prevention of 
diseases in these two classes, what a vast amount of good 
it would accomplish ! Let us explain. For many years 
there has been a class of diseases called " Hereditary," 
because the predisposing causes were inherited, — because 
they are transmitted from generation to generation, and 
thus run in families. Now, if those ancestors were free 
from any taint, or in other words, had perfectly sound and 
healthy constitutions, the seeds, the germs, the predispos- 
ing tendencies of disease would not be transmitted. Let 
us carry out a little farther this line of argument. 

The same kind of evidence which proves that the germs 
of, or predisposition to, disease are transmitted in a single 
instance, applies to all others of a similar character ; and 
the legitimate inference is that there must exist in Nature 
a great general law. Such a law, we believe, exists and is 
based upon a normal standard of physiology, — a standard 
for the government of the human body, wherein all its 



104 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

parts are perfect in structure, and its organs harmonious 
in their functions. This standard of organization consti- 
tutes the highest measure of health; is free from all kinds 
of weakness, as well as predisposition to disease. But, 
unfortunately, we do not find such organized standards in 
the present state of society — only approximations; and 
the nearer individuals or families approach this standard, 
the sounder the constitution, the less disease ; whereas, 
the further the deviations diverge from this standard, the 
greater are the weaknesses and liabilities to disease. Here 
come in the laws of inheritance, — starting not in a per- 
fect, healthy organization, but in conditions of the body 
where changes of some kind have taken place in the vital 
forces of the system. To understand and utilize these 
laws they must be reduced to some system; the distinct 
relations between the causes and the effects must be 
traced out, till we find a great general law serving as a 
standard of appeal, or a regulator to all the minor ones. 

There can be no question but that in the inheritance of 
morbid tendericies we have one of the most fruitful sources 
of disease. This will become more patent in proportion 
as the principles of physiology shall become better under- 
stood in their connection with hereditary influences. 
Without attempting to describe the various ways in which 
the seeds of disease, or the predisposing causes, are trans- 
mitted from parent to child, we may say they are mani- 
fold, — in organization or function ; in defective or abnor- 
mal structure ; in the weak or excessive development of 
this or that organ ; in the general want of balance in the 
organs, and of harmony of function ; in the quality of the 
blood, and the marked predisposition to certain diseases, 
like scrofula and consumption. 

A class of diseases called " hereditary " has existed 
since the days of Hippocrates, and has always been con- 
sidered difficult to treat, and much less to cure. Very 



SANITARY SCIENCE. 105 

little attention has been paid to these complaints by sani- 
tarians, as it was supposed they could not be easily pre- 
vented. But this is a mistake; they originate from the 
violation of law by human agency ; they can, then, cer- 
tainly be prevented. 

It is admitted by physiologists that all parts of the body 
can be changed by proper exercise and the law of nutri- 
tion, — some parts increased in size and strength more 
than others, — so that in this way a far greater measure of 
health can be secured. It is found that decided improve- 
ments can be made in the physical system during the life- 
time of an individual, and that in three or four generations 
the human constitution may reach a higher state of per- 
fection. If Nature has, therefore, established a physiolog- 
ical standard of health, — which is much less liable to 
disease, — and at the same time it is well understood that 
this standard is attainable, should not the greatest efforts 
be put forth to secure and maintain such a boon ? It is 
by this means that the germs, the primary causes of a 
vast amount of disease, are to be forestalled. In this 
warfare with disease we have been content to lop off a 
few branches, leaving intact the trunk and roots. We 
have been battling the enemy in the outskirts, without 
attempting to take the citadel. Here is a great work 
for sanitary science ; in this field it is destined to reap its 
richest harvests. It may take time ; but reforms in which 
the highest welfare of mankind are involved never remain 
stationary. 

In drawing this discussion to a close, a few suggestions 
may seem appropriate. While quoting from Doctor 
Flint's address on "■ Medicine of the Future," the inquiry 
arises, Is not sanitary science also to have a "future" ? 
Most assuredly. Its past history is very brief and differ- 
ent from that of medicine. This extends back thousands 
of years, and its whole history is made up of a succession 



106 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

of changes. It is not so with sanitary science. A half- 
century covers its whole existence. Its only change has 
been the constant unfolding and applying of Nature's laws 
to the improvement of health and prevention of disease. 
It has not been found necessary in its progress to try ex- 
periments or apply any new medicine. As sanitation is 
based upon the laws of Nature, its course can not change 
or go backward. Excelsior is its motto. 

This sanitary movement has certain advantages over 
other reforms. Its success does not depend upon the 
medical profession alone, nor upon the patronage of gov- 
ernment, nor upon any one body of men, but upon all 
classes, — men and women. The more people become 
enlightened on the subject, the more earnestly will they 
engage in the work, and become at once partakers in its 
benefits. 

The history of sanitary science is full of promise for the 
future. It is really only about twenty-five years since it 
could be said to have had a fair start. Its doctrines have 
become deeply rooted, not only in the medical profession, 
but among large numbers of the laity scattered through- 
out this country and Europe. The press is committed de- 
cidedly in its favor. Its teachings are found broadcast in 
books, journals, pamphlets, reports, and newspapers. Its 
principles are being taught and applied both in our com- 
mon schools and higher institutions of learning. Boards 
of health have been organized in all large cities and in 
nearly every one of the United States. The benefits al- 
ready derived from this science can not be estimated in 
figures, or described in language. The pestilence in this 
country has been stayed ; epidemics have been checked ; 
a vast amount of sickness prevented, and a great multi- 
tude of lives saved. In Great Britain, where the science 
has made greater progress, and more exact accounts kept, 
upon Mr. Edwin Chadwick's authority, based on the regis- 



SANITARY SCIENCE. 107 

trar-general's report, it is asserted that the lives of 30,000 
persons are annually saved, and 300,000 cases of sickness 
every year prevented by means of this science ! 

The two following statements, though once quoted, are 
so prophetic that they will bear repeating: — 

Forty-two years ago Dr. Elisha Bartlett said, in Phila- 
delphia, while urging upon the profession a more thorough 
knowledge of the causes and nature of disease : "The next 
thing to be done is to find out the best method of modify- 
ing and preventing disease. This is the great mission that 
lies immediately before us ; this is to constitute the great 
work of the next and succeeding generations." Forty 
years ago Dr. John Forbes, in an address to his brethren, 
said in London : " Redoubled attention should be directed 
to hygiene, public and private, with a view of preventing 
diseases on a large scale, and individually in our sphere of 
practice. Here the surest and most glorious triumphs of 
medicine are to be achieved." 

Ten years ago Dr. Henry I. Bowditch, of Boston, who 
has given more thought to this subject than any other man 
in this country, said, near the close of his work on " Pub- 
lic Hygiene in America": "We stand now at the very 
dawn of the grandest epoch yet seen in the progress of 
medicine. While philosophically, accurately, and with the 
most minute skill, studying by means of physiology, pa- 
thological anatomy, chemistry, the microscope, and above 
all, by careful clinical observation, the natural history of 
disease and the effects of remedies, — our art at the pres- 
ent day looks still higher, viz., to the prevention of as well 
as to the cure of disease." 

These testimonials speak for themselves. They need 
no comment. The predictions here uttered are certain to 
be fulfilled. The glorious triumphs spoken of will surely 
be achieved. Individuals, organizations, and institutions 
may perish, but these principles will live and advance 
step by step, from one triumph to another, from one glory 
to another. 



Prevention of Crime. 



rT LITTLE more than one hundred years ago John 
^^ Howard published his celebrated work on the prisons 
of England and Wales. From that period a new element 
entered into the treatment of prisoners. They began to 
be treated more like human beings, with the possibility of 
reformation. The principles of humanity and philan- 
thropy, prior to that time, had scarcely been recognized in 
dealing with this class of persons. But during the first 
half century — from 1778 to 1830 — the reform made very 
slow progress. About this latter period commenced two 
great experiments in prison discipline, denominated the 
"congregated system " and that of "solitary confinement." 
These experiments created much discussion, which gave 
a new impulse to the reform. 

During the last half century, and especially within 
twenty-five years, many changes have been made. New 
questions in prison discipline have continually arisen, and 
experiments of various kinds have been tried. While 
some nations have shown more interest, and made, per- 
haps, farther advances in reform than others, each has had 
its own system of discipline with its peculiar merits. In 
our country important improvements have been made, 
but still many defects exist. We fail to reap the results 
which ought to be obtained, especially in the reformation 
of prisoners and the prevention of crime. 

* An attendance upon the International Congress on Prisons in London, 
and many years' experience connected with the prisons of Massachusetts, 
have suggested this paper. 



PREVENTION OF CRIME. IO9 

The leading objects of prison discipline may be ex- 
pressed under these three heads : punishment, safety, and 
reform. As to the importance of securing these three 
objects, all, we believe, are agreed, however they may 
differ in the modes of doing it, or on minor points. These 
objects are here placed in the order in which each has 
come up in history, and in accordance with the prominence 
which many persons seem to attach to the whole subject; 
but, really, reformation should be the main object of con- 
finement and punishment, for it is more important than 
both of the others. 

The true test of such discipline is in the proportion of 
prisoners discharged, improved or reformed on the one 
hand, and on the other, of those released unimproved and 
perhaps made worse. If the former object were generally 
secured, there would be few re-committals and far less 
increase of criminals. But, unfortunately, statistics show 
that crime is constantly increasing, that prisons of all 
kinds are everywhere crowded, and that nearly one-fourth 
of their inmates are re-committals. It is very evident 
that there is something wrong in the present methods of 
dealing with criminals ; that the ends attained do not cor- 
respond with the means employed; that reformation in 
the prisoner is not generally effected. Without attempting 
any thing like a full discussion of the subject, we propose 
to notice it briefly from a single point of view, viz., the 
prevention of crime. 

There are two stand-points from whence facts and argu- 
ments may be brought to show how crime can be pre- 
vented : first, we may check crime in criminals ; and, 
second, keep persons from becoming criminals. 

While, in the present state of society, it may be im- 
possible by human means to prevent some persons from 
entering upon a criminal career, much may be done to 
break up such habits when once formed, and to produce a 
radical change of life. It is an encouraging fact, that 



I 10 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

wherever the proper means have been brought to bear, 
the character of prisoners has been improved, and the 
number of criminals reduced. Unfortunately this part of 
prison discipline has been altogether underrated or neg- 
lected, while confinement and punishment have received 
relatively too much attention. Reform in habits and 
character has been considered of minor consequence. In 
fact, such has been, not unfrequently, the treatment of 
criminals, both in spirit and manner, as to produce any 
thing but a reformatory influence upon them. There are 
laws of mind as well as of body, which, if violated, serve 
to make the individual more of a criminal. Let the ani- 
mal and selfish nature in the prisoner be mainly exercised, 
without developing his moral and intellectual powers, and 
no reformation in his habits or character takes place or 
can be expected. 

As this treatment of prisoners involves laws which lie 
at the foundation of all reform, and, of course, of correct- 
ing criminal habits, it should receive the most scrupulous 
attention. The criminal is a human being and governed 
by law. Crime is the violation of law, — not merely civil, 
but moral, — a law of Nature. A criminal has all the 
faculties of other persons, but not well-balanced or prop- 
erly enlightened and trained. While the safety of the 
community and the principles of justice require that the 
criminal should be confined and punished, it should be 
done in harmony with laws which develop his higher and 
better nature. No criminal was ever reformed by being 
treated in a brutish manner, nor by appeals only to his 
animal and selfish nature. The conscience must be en- 
lightened, and the intellect instructed. Hence, educa- 
tional, moral, and religious influences ought to be brought 
into requisition far more than they are. No prisoner 
should ever be discharged without being improved, if pos- 
sible, in his habits and character. This reform must be 
an individual work, the treatment varied or adapted to 



PREVENTION OF CRIME. I I I 

every case. Reform seldom, if ever, occurs in classes or 
large numbers at once. Such a work requires time, labor, 
and means ; but its results will abundantly pay. It is in 
this respect that prison discipline fails : its subject is not 
reformed, neither is crime checked. It is in this direction 
that improvements should be made, which would have a 
powerful influence in the prevention of crime. 

The most important reform in prison discipline that has 
anywhere occurred is in Ireland. This is based upon a 
system of improved classification of rewards and promo- 
tions, as well as of encouragement and assistance to pris- 
oners after being released. This reform commenced some 
twenty-five years ago, and has resulted in a great decrease 
of crime, as well as of the number of convicts. Improve- 
ments of a similar character have been introduced into the 
English prisons, and have been attended with decidedly 
beneficial results. 

We regret that we can not report favorably in this re- 
spect of prison discipline in our own country. Since the 
Civil war, crime has everywhere rapidly increased, and in 
some states it is estimated that it has doubled. No thor- 
ough and systematic measures are taken to reform pris- 
oners ; the old ranks are kept good, and new recruits are 
constantly being added. Great pains are taken to provide 
prisoners with labor, to make contracts, and to obtain as 
much money as possible out of their work. If we had 
the same amount of effort expended in reforming their 
habits and character, crime and criminals would decrease. 
There is great need of legislation on this particular point, 
and that the managers of prisons have the power and be 
specially instructed to adopt efficient measures for the 
reform of prisoners. 

The second means of preventing crime, viz., keeping 
persons from becoming criminals, opens up a very im- 
portant field of inquiry. It may be convenient to discuss 



112 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

both these agencies that shape and mould human life after 
birth, and those that beget and fashion the constituent 
elements of the brain prior to birth. 

All history proves that the criminal class, as a body, 
originates from a peculiar stratum or type in society, — 
sometimes from the middle or common walks of life, but 
more generally from the lowest orders, especially from the 
ignorant, the shiftless, the indolent, and dissipated. Oc- 
casionally we find some from high life, from those in good 
circumstances, from well-trained families, from good homes ; 
but these are altogether the exceptions. In such cases 
any new or additional means to reform them would be 
useless. If our object, then, is to prevent crime on a 
large scale, we must direct attention to its main sources, 
— to the materials that make criminals ; the springs must 
be dried up ; the supplies must be cut off. This fruitful 
source or fountain-head of crime is found among children 
of poor or miserable parentage, surrounded by bad in- 
fluences and exposed to all manner of temptation, with no 
one disposed or qualified to train and educate them. Such 
are the hot-beds of vice and crime. On account of in- 
dolent, shiftless, and dissipated habits, such people con- 
tinue poor and dependent ; large numbers also become 
orphans, and fall upon the public for support, or become 
pests to society. All such children should be picked up 
and gathered into reformatories, or find homes in good 
private families, which are the best reformatory institu- 
tions in the world. 

Again : into such low communities, abounding with 
children under the influence of vicious parents, moral 
and spiritual education should be carried, and the 
state or municipality should see to it that every child is 
brought into the public school and educated. Efforts in 
various other ways should be used to bring moral and 
religious influences to bear upon such families and neigh- 



PREVENTION OF CRIME. 113 

borhoods. Children become vicious and criminal fre- 
quently on account of their surroundings and immediate 
exposures. The sooner children can be removed from 
such localities and circumstances, the better. The public 
are not sufficiently awake to these upas-trees of poison, — 
these pests and hothouses of vice. All legal and moral 
means should be employed to reform such classes. Every 
state and city should adopt systematic measures for this 
purpose. The saving in taxation alone will pay for it. In 
no other way can crime be so effectually prevented. 

More prolific than any other in the production of crime 
is the vice of intemperance. This operates in so many 
ways that it is impossible to trace out all its destructive 
effects. It impoverishes people, and brings them into cir- 
cumstances of temptation ; it corrupts the morals, and 
poisons the blood ; it excites the evil propensities, and 
develops the animal nature ; it stupefies conscience, and de- 
stroys the moral sentiments ; it impairs in man the powers 
of free agency, and converts him into a brute. Whatever 
produces such effects upon the human system must have 
a powerful influence in the production of crime. The 
evidences come from all quarters, — and without contra- 
diction from any, — that intemperance is the cause or 
occasion of three-fourths of all the crime committed, some 
estimating it even higher. The habit commences early 
and more readily with individuals and families who are 
predisposed to idleness and to low, animal life. The nat- 
ural instincts of such persons flow in one direction, and 
drinking becomes a master-passion. If intoxicating drinks 
can be withheld from this class of persons, their habits 
and character become gradually improved. Total absti- 
nence would do much to save them from a life of vice and 
crime. By this means more than half of the crime com- 
mitted would be prevented. 

But the primal and principal cause of crime exists in a 



114 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

state of things prior to birth. That the "child resembles 
the parent," and "like begets like," are acknowledged 
truisms. It is also true that this resemblance or likeness 
extends to all parts of the brain, and, of course, to every 
faculty of the mind. If the lower and posterior part of 
the brain is predominant and continuously active, the 
animal propensities and selfish faculties will take the lead 
in character. If the parents are addicted to habits of 
dissipation and sensuality, the children will be predisposed 
to the same. If these habits are inveterate, the propen- 
sities are transmitted in an intensified form. 

These transmitted qualities are more marked, and have 
a much wider range, than is generally considered. The 
blood itself may be tainted, and affect the structure and 
function of every organ in the body. Such may be the 
physical development as to incline one to lead an idle, low, 
and dissolute life, without ambition or self-respect. A liv- 
ing or means of support must be obtained without work or 
rendering an equivalent. There may be a strong will and 
an overmastering passion of selfishness, so that the indi- 
vidual is not inclined to be governed by the principles of 
justice, or to regard the rights of others. Such persons 
become an easy prey to temptation. 

The celebrated "Margaret, mother of criminals," re- 
ported in New York a few years since, furnishes a striking 
illustration of hereditary crime. An investigation was 
made, through the New York Prison association, in the 
jails and prisons of the state, extending back six genera- 
tions, which resulted in tracing out nearly three hundred 
criminals descended from one wicked woman ! If a thor- 
ough inquiry were made on this subject, doubtless other 
similar illustrations would be found. If the truth could 
be known, we believe a large amount of crime would be 
traced back to hereditary influences. 

How much crime might be prevented if certain classes 



PREVENTION OF CRIME. 115 

of vicious persons could be hindered from propagation ! 
What right have such individuals to bring upon the public 
so much misery, shame, and cost ? Within a few years 
laws have been passed for the forcible removal of nuisances 
and other evils, either injurious to health and life, or detri- 
mental to the welfare of the community. With the rapid 
progress of sanitary science and the great advances in 
legislation, some means, we believe, will yet be devised 
for preventing, at least to some extent, the evils growing 
out of criminal heredity. Let the public mind be en- 
lightened on this subject, let parental responsibility be 
placed on high ground, and the evils of improper mar- 
riages be pointed out, and within two or three generations 
a great amount of crime would in this way be prevented. 



Changes in New England Population. 



TN the history of a nation or people there are sometimes 
important changes taking place so gradually and quietly 
that they are scarcely perceptible at the time. It may 
require a series of years or several generations to work 
out the problems involved, but they may be followed with 
results of great magnitude. 

Some changes of this character have been taking place 
in our New England population, which we purpose here 
briefly to notice. In the earlier history of New England 
there were few changes in the residence of her people. 
As agricultural pursuits constituted their principal occupa- 
tion, the same farms and lands continued to a great extent 
in the same families from generation to generation. Prior 
to the Revolutionary war very little emigration took place 
out of New England. In the early part of the present 
century many persons removed to New York, and some to 
Ohio. From 1810 to 1830 this emigration continued 
steadily to increase, not only to those states, but to the 
states and territories farther west. To such an extent had 
this emigration been carried on that, in 1840, the United 
States census reported nearly half a million of persons 
born in New England who were living in other states. 

Whenever new lands were thrown into market by the 
government or by means of railroads, or some new mining 

*This paper appeared in the Popular Science Monthly for August, 1883. 
It attracted much attention at the time, and has frequently been called for 
since, from all parts of the country. 



CHANGES IN NEW ENGLAND POPULATION. 117 

interests, then a "Western fever" started up, and great 
numbers might be seen "going West." While we have 
no means of ascertaining the exact number removing from 
New England, during any one year or period of time, the 
United States census gives, every ten years, the birth- 
place of all people residing in every state at the time the 
count was made. The census of 1880 reports that the 
whole number born in New England, but living in other 
states and territories, was 566,848. This number is made 
up by emigration from the different states as follows : 
from Massachusetts, 175,349; from Vermont, 117,590; 
from Connecticut, 108,797; from Maine, 93,256; from New 
Hampshire, 49,397; and from Rhode Island, 22,459. 

From another point of view it will be seen how these 
natives of New England are distributed : New York has 
133,272; Illinois, 53,128; California, 46,908; Iowa, 38,- 
170; Michigan, 37,865; Wisconsin, 37,615; Minnesota, 
34,636; Ohio, 32,819; Pennsylvania, 26,787 ; Kansas, 19,- 
338; New Jersey, 18,148; and other states under 10,000, 
and much less. Vermont has sent away the largest num- 
ber for its population, and New Hampshire the least. 
Maine and Massachusetts have sent the largest delegations 
to California, being three-fourths of all the emigrants in 
that state from New England. It appears by the census 
that the states bordering on New York — Vermont, Mas- 
sachusetts, and Connecticut — have sent over 100,000 
persons to that state, while the other New England states 
have sent only some 20,000. The representation from 
New England (178,207) in the Middle states is much larger 
than is generally supposed. This emigration has now 
been going on for over three-fourths of a century, and it 
would constitute a fact of great interest if we could ascer- 
tain the number of persons born in New England who 
have ever removed from her borders to the Middle and 
Western states, as well as to the territories. 



II 8 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

The census of 1850 shows that at that time there were 
454,626; in i860, 562,997; in 1870, 615,747, and in 1880, 
566,848. It will be seen by these figures that for twenty 
years the number has been very stationary, the new emi- 
grants making not quite good the number who had 
deceased. 

It is full two generations since this emigration com- 
menced. As nearly all those persons emigrating were 
between the ages of twenty and forty, great numbers 
must have died at various periods. The exact amount of 
this mortality it is impossible to ascertain, and the data 
for forming any thing like a correct estimate are altogether 
too uncertain ; it may have been a quarter of a million, and 
possibly a half million. What has been the effect of this 
steady and large drain of people on New England, opens 
a question of much interest. 

Without entering upon the discussion of the subject, 
we make two or three suggestions. It will be admitted, 
we presume, that those young men and women leaving 
their homes possessed, as a general thing, more physical 
energy and mental stamina than those remaining behind. 
Such a loss of physical vigor and character must have had 
a decided effect upon business interests, as well as the 
present state of society. But, from another point of 
view, the loss may have had a more decided and lasting 
influence, — that is, in its permanent effect upon physical 
and mental development. The better the principles of 
physiology are understood, the more we discover what a 
powerful influence physical organization has upon the 
character of a people. The permanent prosperity of any 
community depends far more upon the laws of inheritance 
than is generally supposed. Let the most enterprising 
and promising among the young people emigrate from a 
place, and it must, in the course of time, have its influence. 
Whether the vital interests of New England have not 



CHANGES IN NEW ENGLAND POPULATION. II9 

suffered in this respect, from so many persons emigrating 
in the prime of life, presents a question worthy of careful 
consideration. 

Interchange of Population. — There is another change 
going on in these states quite different from the one de- 
scribed. This consists of frequent removals from one 
state to another. 

The census of 1880 shows that Massachusetts had at 
that time 68,226 residents born in Maine ; 54,088 born in 
New Hampshire ; 26,869 i n Vermont ; 20,514 in Connecti- 
cut ; and 17,067 in Rhode Island, making 186,764 persons 
who have removed there from other states. At the same 
time these five other states had 85,478 persons living in 
their bounds born in Massachusetts. Deduct these 85,478 
from the 186,764, and Massachusetts gains over 100,000, 
mostly from Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. 

There is very little migration from the other New Eng- 
land states to Connecticut or Rhode Island, and scarcely 
any from the latter to the former. Massachusetts, Con- 
necticut, and Rhode Island make very nearly equal ex- 
changes, neither gaining nor losing much. These remov- 
als from one state to another are prompted from a great 
variety of interests, personal and local. The states most 
benefited by them are those employed largely in manufac- 
turing business. These changes are carried on chiefly be- 
tween villages and cities, and seldom take place in the ru- 
ral or country districts. It may be said that the foreign 
element is largely concerned in these removals. 

Country Life Exchanged for the City. — This change is 
not governed at all by state lines. It commenced forty or 
fifty years ago, from country districts to places where trade 
or business demanded help. The introduction of manu- 
factures and mechanical pursuits of various kinds, as well 
as the opening of railroads, created a great demand for 
laborers. By means of those changes and other agencies, 



120 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

trade and commerce became very much enlarged, and fur- 
nished employment for increased numbers. 

Here and there new centers of business were formed ; 
new villages sprang up, and large towns were converted 
into cities. In some parts of New England these removals 
have taken place to such an extent as to change the face 
of the country and the state of society. It commenced 
first in the small farming towns, and has prevailed most in 
places remote from markets and railroad accommodations. 

The effect of such removals is especially marked in Mas- 
sachusetts, as she possesses a larger number of cities, 
more railroad facilities, and a greater diversity of pursuits. 
The census shows the following facts : That of 345 towns 
in Massachusetts, from 1845 to *&55> there was a decrease 
of population in 86 towns ; that from 1855 to 1865 there 
was a loss in 166 towns ; from 1865 to I ^7S there was a loss 
in 142 towns, and the census of 1880 reports a loss in 143 
towns. 

It will be seen that the number of towns losing popula- 
tion varies at each census, but undoubtedly the same towns 
are reported as decreasing in numbers each decade. It 
should be stated that, in about one-quarter of those towns, 
the loss was occasioned by a division of the town or an- 
nexing a part of it to some other place. It should also be 
stated that the removals from the country districts to vil- 
lages and cities do not account for all these losses of popu- 
lation ; emigration to the West, and to other distant places, 
does a part of the work, and so also does death. 

There is another item in the account : the birth-rate has 
so much declined in rural districts, that scarcely any addi- 
tion, if any, comes from natural increase. But, as the 
death-rate in many places exceeded the birth-rate, the 
thinning out of the people is not confined to Massachusetts. 

In Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, the hill towns 
and many of the agricultural districts are losing more or 



CHANGES IN NEW ENGLAND POPULATION. 121 

less population — not alone by death or emigration of 
young people, but by the removal of whole families to 
more populous places. In Rhode Island and Connecticut 
there is not the same extent of territory, and population is 
more equally distributed ; but still the census of Connecti- 
cut reports a decrease of population in some sixty towns 
in the western part of the state. Statistics show that this 
removal of people from the country to the city has been 
increasing every year ; and when it will cease, or what is 
to be the result, time only can tell. 

Agriculture as Related to Other Pursuits. — Connected 
with this decrease of population in country districts, there 
is one very important consideration : that it involves a 
change of occupation. Farming is given up for work in 
the store, the shop, and the mill. Within half a century 
the business of New England has passed through great 
changes. 

By the censuses of i860, 1870, and 1880, we find in- 
stead of an increased number engaged in agriculture with 
the increase of population, that the number has been act- 
ually diminishing. The census divides all kinds of busi- 
ness or occupation into four classes: 1, Agriculture; 2, 
Professional and personal service ; 3, Trades and transpor- 
tation ; and, 4, Manufactures and mechanics. An examina- 
tion' of the tables representing these four classes in the re- 
ports of 1870 and 1880 shows that the last three classes 
have increased relatively far more than the first class. 

The number engaged in agriculture has fallen off in 
every state. Vermont and Massachusetts stand in respect 
to agriculture at extreme points ; the former has more 
people engaged in farming than in all other pursuits, while 
the latter has only about one-tenth as many employed on 
the farm as are engaged in other pursuits. 

Maine has the largest number of any state engaged in 
agriculture — about one-third of her whole population — 



122 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

and she at the same time possesses the greatest amount 
of territory to cultivate. New Hampshire has half as 
many engaged in agriculture as in all other occupations ; 
Connecticut has one-fourth, and Rhode Island only one- 
tenth. The whole number in New England engaged in ag- 
riculture was 301,765, and in other pursuits, 1,268,116 — 
more than four times as many. In 1870 the proportion 
was one to three. 

A comparison of this table (1880) with that in the 
census of 1870 shows a far greater increase in the class of 
professional persons than in that of any other occupation or 
pursuit. The census of 1870 reports only 145,324, while 
the census of 1880 reports 349,984 persons. This increase 
is found in every state, though in some states greater than 
in others. Whether this great increase of professional 
persons in ten years is an indication of an improved state 
of society or not, is a question upon which there might be 
differences of opinion. 

It is well understood that fifty years ago farming con- 
stituted the principal occupation of New England ; but, 
instead of maintaining its position, with a greatly in- 
creased population, it has fallen far behind other pursuits. 
The great additions made to her people have been ab- 
sorbed in trade, in manufactures, and mechanical business. 
In considering this exchange of agriculture for other pur- 
suits, a question of great interest arises : What is to be 
its effect upon physical organization and the permanent 
prosperity of a people ? 

No fact is more firmly established than that agricultural 
pursuits are the most healthy of all, and that those en- 
gaged in them transmit physical development in its best 
estate. All experience proves that an exclusive city 
population tends gradually to degenerate physically, and 
that the stock can not be kept good from generation to 
generation. 



CHANGES IN NEW ENGLAND POPULATION. 123 

It is well understood that the only conservative power 
that can prevent this degeneracy in cities, is that their 
population shall constantly be replenished by recruits from 
the country. But it should be borne in mind that the 
places in the country made vacant by these removals are 
soon occupied by a different race of people, and that this 
foreign element is pretty likely to increase more and more 
in the farming districts of New England. 

Supposing this change should generally take place in 
the country districts, how is the purely American stock 
to improve or be kept good ? It can be done only by an 
intermingling of the races, which is even questionable. 

Change in Birth-rate. — There is no agency so closely 
connected with the vital interests of a people as the mat- 
ter of the birth-rate. In the history of nations this has 
always been considered a question of the utmost impor- 
tance. To a certain extent, it operates as a thermometer 
to show the rise and fall of national prosperity. The 
process of its operations may seem slow, but certain re- 
sults are sure to follow. 

In respect to this agency a most surprising change has 
gradually been taking place in New England. Near the 
close of the last century-, Malthus, after making a survey 
of all the nations on the earth, selected ttu United States 
(virtually New England, which was the most populous 
part) upon which to base his theory of population. See- 
ing that the inhabitants of these states doubled in twenty- 
five years by natural increase, he considered that it afforded 
most favorable indications of prosperity. At that time 
the birth-rate was high, families were large, and few were 
found without children. 

From the first settlement at Plymouth, in 1620, this 
prosperous state of increase continued without much 
change for nearly two hundred years ; but early in the 
present century some decline in the birth-rate commenced. 



124 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

It is impossible to trace the exact changes which have 
taken place for the last two or three generations. 

In some parts of New England the precincts and towns 
were accustomed to keep very correct records of all births, 
but they were not generally printed, so no comparison of 
them can be made ; but for thirty years or more several of 
the New England states have published registration re- 
ports of births in their cities and towns, so that very cor- 
rect comparisons can be instituted. Without going into 
a detailed sketch, by statistics, figures, etc., of the changes 
in birth-rate, we present some general statements on this 
subject. Forty or fifty years ago large families, numbering 
six, eight, ten, and twelve, were quite common ; now they 
are rare, — in fact, a large number of such families can 
not at the present time be found in any one neighborhood, 
or even in a single country town. Formerly, in the rural 
districts of New England, there were few families having 
only one, two, or three children ; and in case there were 
none, it was so rare as to attract particular attention, and 
was considered by many a great calamity. But what a 
contrast is found in the present state of society ! In the 
great majority of our American families only one, two, or 
three children are now found, and in very many families 
not one. And such a state of society is approved by the 
fashions and prevailing sentiment of the day! 

As registration reports generally return the births of 
the foreign population in the same tables with the Ameri- 
can, and as the term native is applied to all infants whose 
parents were born in this country, though of foreign de- 
scent, it will be at once seen how difficult it is to obtain 
the exact birth-rate separate of each class. Two facts are 
pretty well established : I, That the birth-rate of the 
foreign class is more than twice as large as the strictly 
American ; and, 2, That, in the country districts of New 
England, settled mainly by the Americans, it is question- 



CHANGES IN NEW ENGLAND POPULATION. 125 

able whether the birth-rate exceeds the death-rate, — that 
is, there is no addition to the population by natural increase. 

Should this birth-rate continue to decrease as it has for 
the last twenty or thirty years, the effect will become more 
and more manifest than it has in the past. The board of 
health for New Hampshire, having charge of the registry 
of births and deaths in the state, in their report just pub- 
lished, state an important fact bearing on this point. 
After carefully analyzing the births and deaths in 1880, 
to draw the line between the foreign and the American, 
the board make out that the deaths among the Americans 
exceed the births by eight hundred, — that is, New Hamp- 
shire lost population from this source. If this same test 
of birth- and death-rate as reported in New Hampshire 
should be found to apply to all the other New England 
states, the record would not be very creditable for the 
past, nor encouraging for the future. 

In making comparison between birth- and death-rate, 
the latter must always be carefully taken into account. 
If the death-rate is unusually large it affects at once the 
gain by natural increase. In New England the death-rate 
generally is not high, which is more favorable for the rate 
of increase. The same is true in Great Britain, but the 
birth-rate is much higher there than here. Thus large 
additions are made there to population by natural increase ; 
far more than in New England. In France for several 
years the death-rate has been rather high, so that allowance 
must be made. As a matter of fact, the comparison with 
foreign nations is decidedly unfavorable to the New 
Englander. 

According to the latest and most authentic reports, the 
birth-rate of the New England states is less than that of 
any large European nation, except France. And this 
birth-rate of New England is based upon both the foreign 
and American classes ; could the latter be eliminated from 



126 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

the former, it would make the birth-rate of the strictly 
American even much lower than that of France. 

It is well understood that the population is steadily de- 
creasing in certain portions of France, and that this 
decrease is every year extending. This decline in num- 
bers is attracting more and more the thoughtful attention 
of the French savants, and the inquiry is made for the 
causes and the remedies. It may be found to resemble 
certain diseases, the causes of which can readily be dis- 
covered, but the remedies can not easily be applied. 

Foreign Population in New England. — Of all the changes 
in New England, the introduction of the foreign element 
is the most important. The facts respecting the history 
of this immigration, and the extent to which it has reached, 
can be obtained, but no human sagacity can fully foresee 
its results. There are, however, certain features in these 
changes which should be carefully studied, and the devel- 
opments or tendencies growing out of them should be 
better understood. More facts, more knowledge, are 
needed on this subject. What, then, is the history of 
this movement ? Fifty years ago the foreign element in 
New England was very small. In Massachusetts the 
census reports that in 1830 it was only 9,620, and in- 
creased as follows : in 1840 it was 34,818; 1850, 164,448; 
i860, 260,114; 1870, 357,319; and 1880, 443,402. It 
should be borne in mind that these figures represent only 
the "foreign-born," and not their children or descendants, 
which would greatly increase the number. 

In the other New England states the whole foreign ele- 
ment combined is not so large as that in Massachusetts, 
and has not increased so fast. In Maine, in 1850, it num- 
bered 31,450, and in 1880 it was 58,883; in New Hamp- 
shire, in 1850, 13,571, and in 1880,46,294; in Vermont, 
1850, 32,931, and 1880, 40,959; in Rhode Island, 1850, 
23,111, and in 1880, 73,993; and in Connecticut, 1850, 



CHANGES IN NEW ENGLAND POPULATION. \2J 

37>473> an d in 1880, 129,992. The whole number of for- 
eign-born in New England, reported by the census of 
1880, was 793,122, and 360,649 of these emigrated from 
Ireland. 

The census reports the whole population of New Eng- 
land, born in the United States, as 3,234,317; but large 
numbers reported here as natives are of foreign descent. 
It is impossible here to draw the line, but, from the best 
evidences before us, we should say there must be about 
half as many in this class as that of the foreign-born, 
which would increase the foreign element to 1,200,000 in 
New England. It may be larger. The Catholic Directory, 
six years ago, stated that there were at that time 890,000 
souls in New England connected with that church, and 
the number must have since considerably increased. 
Then, of the 793,122 reported by the census "foreign- 
born," there must be a large number of Protestants, — 
being over 100,000 emigrants from England and Scotland. 
The same organ also six years ago stated that "nearly 
twenty-five per cent, of the population of New England 
is composed of Roman Catholics." The census reports 
the whole population of New England as 4,027,439 in 
1880. At the present time (1883) the foreign element 
must number over 1,200,000 persons in New England. 
But it is quite unequally distributed. In Massachusetts, 
Connecticut, and Rhode Island it numbers more than a 
third of the population; but in Maine, New Hampshire, 
and Vermont it is not one-quarter. As the birth-rate of 
this class is more than twice as large as the American, 
the foreign element will constantly gain in numbers upon 
the American. 

Connected with this large addition to our population, 
composed of a different people in race, type, and char- 
acter, there are several points that deserve careful consid- 
eration. A few years ago it was thought that emigration 



128 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

from Ireland would very much diminish, if not cease ; but 
of late it has taken a new start, and may again flourish. 
Emigration from England and Scotland is sure to con- 
tinue ; so also from the British Provinces and Canada. 
But this foreign element is destined to increase hereafter 
more by births than by immigration. The marriage-rate 
is much higher in this class than the American. It is 
possible that, in the process of time, changes in the style 
of living, and by adopting modern fashions, the birth-rate 
of this class may be somewhat reduced, but certainly not 
at present. 

Religious influences have a powerful hold upon this 
class of people, so that they may be restrained from violat- 
ing the laws of the physical system. In process of time 
there may be such a change in the organization of this 
people as to reduce the birth-rate. The Catholic World 
stated six years ago that "nearly seventy per cent, of the 
births in New England were those in Catholic families." 
This estimate we thought at the time was too large ; but 
with the increase of births since belonging to this class, 
and the addition of the births of large numbers of the 
foreign-born and foreign descent who are not Catholic, it 
will increase this percentage. 

In most of the cities more than half of the births for 
years have been connected with the foreign element, but 
it was not expected that the same proportion could be 
found to exist in rural districts and country towns. 

It does not seem possible that three-fourths of all the 
births in New England at the present time can be classed 
under a foreign head, but the indications are pretty certain 
that such will be the case before many years, and then we 
shall be compelled to believe the fact. The inquiry is 
frequently made, If the two classes do not intermarry, 
what is the prospect in this direction ? There are occa- 
sional intermarriages between the American, the English, 



CHANGES IN NEW ENGLAND POPULATION. 1 2Q 

the Scotch, and the emigrants from the Provinces, but 
not often between the Americans and the Irish. Still, 
cases of this kind do occur occasionally between the labor- 
ing classes, and we think they are increasing. The regis- 
tration reports divide certain married parties into two 
classes, — the foreign-born father and native mother, and 
vice versa. 

The term native here might apply to the strictly Ameri- 
can, but a careful examination shows that each party called 
native was of foreign element, so that there was no mixing 
of the two races. This class of marriages has been con- 
stantly increasing. In Massachusetts, according to the 
registration report of 1881, there were 7,386 births of this 
class ; nearly one-eighth of the whole number. 

Change in Physical Organization. — The most serious 
evil resulting from the introduction of this foreign element 
is in causing a change in the physical organization of New 
Englanders. In the case of men, that part of farming 
requiring hard work, those kinds of mechanical pur- 
suits demanding physical strength, and, in fact, nearly all 
manual labor out-of-doors, have already passed mainly into 
the hands of foreign help. This change, commencing 
thirty or forty years ago, has everywhere been taking 
place, but more rapidly of late years. 

This exchange of regular physical exercise for lighter 
employment and in-door work is calculated to develop 
nerve tissue, rather than the muscles ; to impair the power 
of digestion, and reduce the vital forces of the system. 
That a course of physical degeneracy to some extent has 
thus been going on with New England men, must now, 
upon thorough examination, be generally admitted. 

But a change, more marked and serious in its character, 
has been taking place in female organization. Formerly 
all kinds of house-work and domestic duties were performed 
by New England women. Before foreign help could be 



130 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

obtained, our young women were generally employed as 
domestics in families. It was customary for the more 
wealthy and many families of the middling class, where 
there were no daughters, to employ one or more domestics. 
In many families all the house-work was done by the daugh- 
ters and mother, without any imported help. It was consid- 
ered becoming and praiseworthy for women, both the young 
and middle-aged, to engage or hire in domestic service. 

All such employment was then considered respectable. 
Skill, fidelity, and success in domestic duties were the 
best recommendations that any young woman could pos- 
sess. Practice and public sentiment in these respects 
have entirely changed. Very few girls of pure American 
stock can now be persuaded to engage in domestic labor. 
Such service is generally considered by them menial, and 
every kind of employment or business away from the 
kitchen and domestic hearth is preferred. In families 
where there are daughters, the hardest portion of the 
house-work is now performed by the mother or hired 
help. 

What are some of the effects of this change in domestic 
life ? No kind of exercise is so well calculated to develop 
all parts of the body in the female, and promote good 
health, as house-work. No study or employment can fit 
the young girl so well for house-keeping as practical train- 
ing in such duties. 

In this way home and the family are pretty sure to 
secure a strong attachment. By these means all parts of 
the body are harmoniously developed; a sound constitu- 
tion, good health, and long life are secured. Instead of 
educating the girl in accordance with the laws of her 
physical system, and training her for the great practical 
duties of the family, from the age of ten to eighteen she 
is kept at school nearly all the time, so that the brain and 
nerves are developed at the expense of other organs. This 



CHANGES IN NEW ENGLAND POPULATION. I3I 

partial and one-sided development of the body is increased 
and intensified in the female, by being thrown out of her 
natural sphere in domestic labor and family relation. 
Hence, great multitudes of young women, from fifteen to 
twenty-five, have nothing to do, are everywhere seeking 
employment, and are constantly exposed to an excited or 
morbid state of feeling. 

The ill-health of New England women is proverbial. 
It is less than half a century since it attracted public 
attention. A careful examination will show that its his- 
tory and extent run almost parallel with the high pressure 
in education and the neglect of house-work. The nerves 
and the brain have been cultivated at the expense of the 
muscles and physical stamina. 

In this artificial state of society wants multiply, and 
fashion has a powerful influence. A high and extravagant 
standard of living is set up, and young people are un- 
willing to commence life as their fathers or grandfathers 
did before them. For twenty or thirty years there has 
been a steady decline in the marriage-rate. There are 
powerful influences, starting partly from internal sources 
and partly from external agencies, which threaten the 
permanency and best interests of the family. If the laws 
of the human system can be so changed or violated as to 
defeat its primary objects, this institution must suffer and 
decay. There is a normal and healthy organization of 
the body, as well as of the brain, which favors married 
life and the family relations. On the other hand there is 
such a thing as an abnormal development of the body and 
a morbid condition of the nervous system, which is de- 
cidedly unfavorable to the domestic relations ; especially 
is this the case with females. 

The law of maternity is already violated to such an 
extent that it is questionable whether half our New Eng- 
land women can properly nurse their offspring. There is 



132 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

a general law in nature that "supply and demand" go 
together and are co-equal, and if one fails, the other is 
endangered. There are also decided evidences that the 
maternal instinct, — love of offspring, — one of the stron- 
gest and holiest instincts of our nature, is fading away. 

It should be borne in mind, that when the harmony or 
balance of organization in the body is materially changed, 
— that is, certain parts obtain an extreme development, 
while the functions of others become very much weak- 
ened, — a similar change and derangement of action appear 
in the brain. The fact is well established, that certain 
portions of the brain perform distinct and separate func- 
tions. Let that portion of the brain, whose functions 
pertain to the family relation and to domestic life, fail in 
proper development and healthy action, and supreme 
attention be given to the culture of the intellect and 
moral sentiment, and, in process of time, its effects on 
character will become very manifest. If this change in 
mental development applied only to an individual here 
and there, its effects on society would not be so marked 
or injurious ; but, when the great majority of persons are 
affected by it, the results become far more extensive and 
serious in their character. 

There is a higher, or rather a normal, standard of physi- 
ology, by which all changes in physical organization can 
be tested, whether it is improving or degenerating. This 
is based upon the perfect structure of every organ and 
the legitimate performance of all their functions in a 
normal, healthy manner. The nearer human organization 
approaches this standard, the greater is its power or ability 
to secure the highest objects of life. The great excellency 
of this standard is its balance of power between the body 
and mind ; its harmony of functions as developed by all 
the organs of the body, as well as every part of the 
brain. 



CHANGES IN NEW ENGLAND POPULATION. 1 33 

Again : the family constitutes the foundation or ground- 
work of all society; and, when properly established, is the 
most powerful agency in the world for human improvement. 
This institution must have its basis and supplies in the 
social and domestic affections, guided by the intellect 
and controlled by the moral sentiments. Without such a 
foundation it can not be made permanent, happy, and 
prosperous. The intellectual faculties will never alone 
cement and perpetuate this institution. 

Some singular developments on this subject have 
recently been brought to public notice, — that is, in mat- 
ters connected with the subject of divorce. Among no 
other civilized people is there such a breaking up of the 
family. Why should it occur here, among a people so 
highly educated and moral ? Some attribute it to changes 
in legislation ; but the primary causes of the evil existed 
before, and will continue, in spite of any changes in legis- 
lation. Its outward developments may by this means be 
checked, but the evil is not cured. The primary causes of 
these anomalous developments have, we believe, to some 
extent, a broad and deep foundation in physical organiza- 
tion. We do not see how all the facts connected with this 
alarming evil can be accounted for in any other way. 

There is one consideration connected with this whole 
subject, of vast importance, which can here only be men- 
tioned, — that is, heredity. The changes in organization 
are directly and most intimately connected with hereditary 
influences. The effects of such changes through these 
laws are so great and far-reaching that they can not be 
described or measured. 



Hereditary Influences. 



^FHE fact of hereditary influence was early observed. 
It was proclaimed in the times of Moses. Numerous 
illustrations of it are found in the Sacred Scriptures. It 
was taught by the Greeks and Romans, as well as by 
many able writers since their day. But it was not till near 
the close of the Eighteenth century that systematic at- 
tempts were made to improve in this way the stock of 
domestic animals. 

By careful study and close observation it was found that 
experiments in this direction proved very successful. 
Great changes, both in Great Britain and in this country, 
have been made in improving the qualities and character 
of domestic animals. To such an extent have these ex- 
periments been carried that they have been reduced 
almost to a regular science. The same general principles 
that have been employed in the. animal creation apply 
also to the human species. 

Physiology, upon which these principles are based, is 
comparatively a new science. Within a few years great 
progress has been made in the practical application of this 
science, and just in proportion as we study the relations 
existing between the parent and the child, or between 
one generation and another, do we find marked indications 
of hereditary influences. It may be safely said, we be- 
lieve, from the numerous testimonials and illustrations on 
this subject, that there must be much truth in these laws 
of inheritance. 



HEREDITARY INFLUENCES. 1 35 

But a great difficulty or barrier stands in the way of 
progress on this subject, — that is, the want of a 
general principle or law, by means of which all the facts 
or knowledge of this kind can be classified and reduced to 
a system. In all departments of natural history, or 
sciences in their early stages, there is a period of experi- 
ment, of observation, and discovery before the facts can 
be classified and arranged under general principles. It is 
this kind of work — the establishment of a general law — 
that the facts of heredity need more than any thing else, 
and such is the object of this paper. 

In all the works of Nature, primary laws or general prin- 
ciples are perfect in their character, for they are based 
upon an ideal of perfection. This rule holds good in all 
the natural sciences. Thus in tracing back hereditary 
influences to their primary source or origin, the pre- 
sumption is, that they stand upon some ideal standard 
of human perfection. 

After many years of observation and reflection, we 
venture to submit a general law or standard, upon which 
all hereditary influences are based, and from which they 
have their origin. This law, of course, is based upon 
physiology. What, then, is this ideal standard ? It con- 
sists in perfectionism of structure and harmony of func- 
tion. Now, let one or more of the organs become 
changed in structure, and impaired in discharging its 
proper functions, the effect, more or less in degree, is 
transmitted to the offspring. 

It will be seen at once how weaknesses and predisposi- 
tions to disease may be transmitted. Suppose there is an 
enlargement of the heart or some valvular difficulty, or 
suppose the lungs may be weak or some part of them dis- 
eased, the effects of such an organization are quite likely 
to be transmitted in this direction. The same law govern- 
ing the body applies also to the brain. If certain portions 



I36 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

of the brain are imperfectly or excessively developed, 
thereby causing weak or strong points in the character, 
similar developments and characteristics will be found in 
the child. 

Let us illustrate this law by taking some striking- 
facts in heredity, such as appear in the defective classes — 
the idiotic, the feeble-minded, the blind, the deaf-and- 
dumb, etc. The law is based upon a normal, healthy 
standard of the whole body — every organ normal in 
structure and performing its natural functions in a healthy 
manner. This presupposes that the brain is well devel- 
oped and performing its legitimate work, and, also, that 
the senses of sight and hearing are sound and healthy. 
Now, would such an organization beget offspring idiotic, 
feeble-minded, deprived of sight and hearing ? Assuredly 
not; it would be impossible. While we do not find per- 
fect organizations, but only approximations to them, yet 
the nearer we approach them, the less such defects are 
likely to occur. Suppose this physical standard, naturally 
sound and healthy, has become impaired, — some parts 
abused and diseased, — then these imperfections will be 
transmitted. This law of hereditary influence applies to 
the brain and to the senses, as well as to all other parts 
of the body. 

It has long been admitted by the best writers on medi- 
cine that there is a large class of diseases called hered- 
itary, from the fact that the germs or predispositions to 
these complaints are transmitted. There may be instances 
where the disease can not be traced back to the parent or 
grandparent, but may have existed in some of the ances- 
tors, passing over one or two generations. The diseases 
most likely to be transmitted are consumption, scrofula, 
rheumatism, neuralgia, disease of the heart, liver, etc. 

Perhaps there is no organ in the body where the predis- 
posing causes to disease are greater than in the brain. It is 



HEREDITARY INFLUENCES. 137 

estimated that fully one-third of all the insanity may be 
traced directly, or indirectly, to hereditary influences. 
The brain, from its delicate structure and incessant activ- 
ity, is more likely to be disturbed, and its functions 
become more or less deranged, than almost any other 
organ in the body. If the morbid, diseased action of one 
organ implies that there must be a normal, healthy stand- 
ard, why may not all these be combined and make a 
general, universal standard ? And why should this not 
constitute a general law of heredity, from which all minor 
points have their start and origin ? 

If we could always have the same data, — the same or- 
ganization upon which to base hereditary influences, — 
the results would be determined more definitely. But in 
applying this law of heredity we encounter a serious diffi- 
culty at once : there must be two active agents, not pos- 
sessing the same organization, which may be constituted 
widely different. It is in this union, or combination of 
similar and dissimilar qualities, that the results or effects 
of inheritance must be estimated. As a general thing, 
where there is great similarity in the agents, there will be 
sameness in results ; while on the other hand, the greater 
the differences, the more widely marked the results. 

One of the most important elements in constituting a 
good organization is that there should be a balance or 
harmony in the organization. In this case we shall not 
find marked excesses or defects; and provided both 
parties possess such an organization, it is almost certain 
that the offspring will have sound and healthy constitu- 
tions. The same principle applies to the brain ; if its 
parts are not well developed, — some excessive, and others 
deficient, — the mental qualities of the child will not be 
evenly balanced. 

In entering into matrimony it is desirable that the 
parties coming together combine such organizations as 
10 



I38 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

complement each other ; those qualities wherein one is 
deficient, the other should make up. This conduces 
greatly, not only to the interests and happiness of the 
parties themselves, but it insures favorable hereditary 
results. In order to secure such advantages there is need 
of understanding this general law of heredity. 

In making application of the law, it presupposes that other 
conditions are favorable; such as the age, the union, and 
the adaptation of the married parties. Provided no natural 
laws are violated or interfered with, there will uniformly 
be found with such an organization, not only the greatest 
number of children, but they will be endowed with the 
greatest amount of physical vigor, strength, and health. 
It should also be added that with such an organization 
the best development of all parts of the brain might be 
expected, giving balance and symmetry to mental qual- 
ities, whether social, intellectual, or moral ; in fact, it is 
the highest and most perfect development and standard 
which Nature sets before us. 

This organization consists briefly in the perfectionism 
of structure and function ; or, in other words, is the nor- 
mal standard of anatomy and physiology in their highest 
and best estate. Upon this basis is founded not only 
the law of human increase, but also the general law of 
health and longevity. Weaknesses and diseases originate 
in deviations from this standard, or in violation of some 
of its laws. Thus, in the changes taking place in the 
human body there are general principles to guide us, 
and a universal standard of appeal. By this means 
clearer views and more definite knowledge can be ob- 
tained of all weaknesses and diseases to which the human 
body is subject. 

There is a great advantage in having a standard of or- 
ganization constantly before the mind, as it enables us to 
detect more readily, in every case, what diseases are con- 



HEREDITARY INFLUENCES. 139 

stitutional or hereditary. We can thus judge far better 
of the relations which one disease sustains to another. 
This knowledge will also enable us, not only to treat this 
class of diseases more successfully, but to understand how 
they may be prevented. 

Now, a careful investigation will show that it is the 
constitution or organization here described that survives 
the longest or reaches the greatest age. It is this type 
of the physical system or combination of forces that in- 
sures longevity; and the most powerful of these forces is 
that of heredity. All writers agree that one of the indis- 
pensable requisitions for long life is good healthy stock, 
or long-lived ancestry. If there is any condition, property, 
or principle that composes or regulates these inherent 
qualities and tendencies, there must be some general rule 
overruling the whole. 

There is another test in favor of this normal type of 
physiology ; that is, it is the true standard of beauty. In 
the creation of man there must have been a standard, a 
form, a size, a fullness, a proportion, an outline, etc., that 
was more beautiful than all others. Man was created with 
a sense of taste ; with a love for the beautiful, which, cul- 
tivated and perfected to its highest state, might find 
objects in Nature capable of gratifying it to the greatest 
possible extent. 

The physical standard here described represents the 
organization of man as perfect, — the same model and 
type that it was when he came from the hands of the 
Creator. It is this same standard or model that Grecian 
and Roman artists have attempted to imitate in statuary. 
Art may create such models, but what a failure on the 
part of Nature ! What countless deviations from this 
standard do we find everywhere, among all people ! What 
has been the most powerful agency in producing these 
changes ? It is the law of inheritance, first and foremost, 



140 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

above all other agencies. Why should not such a power 
be better understood ? Why should it not be more under 
the control of the human will ? 

Within a few years the interest in this subject has 
greatly increased, as indicated by the publication of sev- 
eral new works, as well as by discussions in the journals 
and newspapers. Some advocates of the doctrine are so 
enthusiastic that they claim, if the principles of heredity 
could be generally applied, it would improve the pres- 
ent state of society; that it would go far to eradicate evil 
and crime, as well as pauperism and insanity. In their 
zeal for this new doctrine they overestimate altogether its 
advantages, and do not consder the difficulties in the way, 
or how slow must be the process of improvement. It is 
the work of successive generations. 

On account of the advocates of the doctrine making 
such high pretensions of what it can do, some persons 
have become very much prejudiced against it, and ridicule 
its followers. It is not the first or the only time that new 
doctrines have been opposed and ridiculed. This arises 
in a great measure from ignorance and prejudice. The 
facts on this subject are so common and abundant that 
they must convince every candid and reflecting person 
that there is much truth in them. 

The principal reason why the laws of inheritance have 
not hitherto been better or more generally understood is 
because the principles of physiology have not been ap- 
plied any more to practical life; in fact, this science is 
practically in its infancy. It is only a few years since the 
relations between pure air and the healthy state of the 
lungs and the blood became known, or the importance of 
regular exercise of all parts of the body, in order to main- 
tain good health. 

The relations which the physical system, with its various 
organs, sustains to education and religious culture, are, as 



HEREDITARY INFLUENCES. I4I 

yet, very imperfectly understood. So is the application of 
sanitary laws to public health ; also to the prevention of 
disease and the preservation of human life. The farther 
inquiries are pushed into the relation which this science 
sustains to the public welfare, the more useful and im- 
portant do they appear. It may be found that this law of 
inheritance will become one of the most powerful agencies 
that can be employed for advancing the best interests of 
a people. Such an agency certainly should not be despised 
or ignored. 

The inquiry may still be made : If the doctrines here 
advocated are so important, why have they not before 
become generally known and their truth admitted ? The 
same question might have been raised in reference to many 
other discoveries. It seems to have been the design of 
Providence that the great truths of Nature should slowly 
be brought to light, at different periods, and by a variety 
of agencies. Such has been the history of nearly all the 
sciences. A great amount of knowledge may exist on 
some subjects without being reduced to sytem or applied 
under general principles. 

It is so in regard to heredity. A large body of facts 
have been gathered by a great number of individuals, 
each operating in different fields. Now let all these facts 
be carefully analyzed and classified, to see if some general 
principles can not be deduced from them, — some principles 
which will enable us to understand better their origin, 
their connection, and application. In the very nature of 
things there must be some general law to explain and 
regulate these phenomena. 

In review of the facts here stated, we ask if they do 
not afford sufficient data and argument to claim some 
attention ? Let the reader take the normal standard of 
physiology as here described and study it carefully from 
all points of view ; let him select individuals and families 



142 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

among his acquaintances, and see what are the deviations 
in their case from this standard ; let him examine into the 
relations between parent and child, and see what are the 
resemblances, what physical and mental qualities are in- 
herited. The more striking and peculiar the organization 
and character of these persons are, the greater and more 
marked will be the hereditary effects. Let him take the 
defective classes, such as the feeble-minded, the blind, the 
deaf-and-dumb, and the insane ; let him select cases from 
the highest and lowest grades in society, and examine into 
the character of the offspring, — physical and mental, — 
and we are sure he will be convinced that there is such a 
thing as the law of inheritance; and, if it is true in one 
single case, there must be a great universal law covering 
the whole. 



The New England Family. 



TT^HY the New England family the subject of this 
^-^-^ paper? Because it is a historic family; it is the 
root and seminal principle of American civilization. The 
ideas born and nurtured in it are permeating this whole 
nation. Fifty millions of people have received a social, 
political, moral, spiritual impulse from it, and the end is 
not yet. 

The peculiarities of such a family deserve to be better 
understood. Also, if there are any agencies threatening 
the stability and best interests of the family in this highly 
favored portion of the land, they should be exposed. It 
is evident that some changes, anomalous and difficult to 
explain, are taking place in the population of New Eng- 
land. 

As the family is the natural source of increase in popu- 
lation as well as the fountain head of social and national 
prosperity, a careful study into the influences that affect 
this institution, and the changes that are being wrought in 
it can not but be profitable. 

It may be well to notice, first, certain principles in 
physiology which have a direct bearing upon the subject. 
This science is comparatively of modern growth, and may 
justly be said to be in its infancy, as it respects some im- 
portant applications. 

* This paper appeared in the New Englander, March, 1882, and many 
calls have since been made for it. 



144 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Once physiology was studied chiefly with reference to 
disease and individual health, — its relations to public in- 
stitutions and the welfare of society generally not being 
well understood. Within forty or fifty years the rela- 
tions of physiology to education have received much at- 
tention, and more recently, special interest has been 
awakened in respect to its bearings upon hygiene. The 
more thoroughly this science is investigated in its varied 
relations to human welfare, the more extensive will be 
found its applications, as well as valuable its results. But 
in respect to the family and the laws of human increase, 
the principles of this science have not been investigated or 
applied as they should be. It requires no argument to 
prove that physiological laws have a most direct and inti- 
mate bearing upon both subjects. While the laws of pop- 
ulation and the family institution have been discussed 
from different points, the laws that govern the human 
body in multiplying the species have not as yet been prop- 
erly investigated and explained. Here physiology is des- 
tined, we believe, to achieve its noblest triumphs. 

The most distinguished writer on population, T. R. 
Malthus, makes very little account of this science. In all 
his discussions touching changes in population, its in- 
crease and decrease, there is no allusion to the operation 
of the laws which govern the human organization. The 
science of physiology was scarcely known in his day. 
The most important English writers succeeding Malthus — 
M. T. Sadler and T. Doubledey — laid more stress upon 
physical organization, but failed to establish any general 
principle. The course pursued by Herbert Spencer and 
Charles Darwin is very different. Yet while they had 
made important discoveries in physiology, and discussed 
its application in a variety of ways, the laws that govern 
population and the family institution have received from 
them very little consideration. We venture to submit 



THE NEW ENGLAND FAMILY. 1 45 

here a general law or principle on this subject. At this 
time we can present only the substance of this law, refer- 
ring the reader to papers in which it is more fully dis- 
cussed by the writer.* 

This law is based upon a normal or perfect standard of 
the human system — where every organ in the body is 
complete in structure, and performs all its natural func- 
tions. This implies that the body is symmetrically and 
well developed in all its parts, so that each organ per- 
forms its proper function in harmony with the others. 

While this perfect physiological standard may only 
rarely be found, there are approximations to it in great 
numbers, some much nearer than others. The fact that 
the law is based upon physiological organization does not 
preclude the influence of other agents, such as climate, 
food, government, etc. ; but these factors are secondary. 
Also, in carrying out this law, it is presupposed that other 
conditions, such as age, sympathetic union, and mutual 
adaptation of the married parties, are favorable. 

With such an organization there will uniformly be 
found — provided no laws of Nature are violated — not 
only the greatest number of children, but they will be en- 
dowed with the highest amount of physical strength, 
health, and mental capacity. On the other hand let the 
body be developed to extremes in either direction, towards 
a predominance of nerve tissue with a large active brain, 



* " The Laws of Human Increase." Quarterly Journal of Psychological 
Medicine, April, 1868. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 

"The Physiological Laws of Human Increase," vol. 21. Transactions of 
the American Medical Association, 1870. Philadelphia. 

" Lessons on Population " ; suggested by Grecian and Roman history. 
Congregational Quarterly, October, 187 1. Boston. 

Lecture on Hereditary Influences before Massachusetts Board of Agri- 
culture. Transactions, 1872. Boston. 

" The Normal Standard of Woman for Propagation." American Journal 
of Obstetrics, vol. 9, April, 1876. Wood & Co., New York. 



I46 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

or towards a predominance of the lymphatic muscular tem- 
perament ; either extreme will be found very unproductive 
of well organized children. This normal standard of phy- 
sical development applies also to the brain. It is of the 
highest importance that all parts of this organ should be 
well developed and their functions harmoniously per- 
formed. 

This is especially necessary in respect to the marriage 
relation. Whatever differences of opinion may exist among 
physiologists as to the functions of the brain, on minor 
points, it is generally agreed that the social and domestic 
affections have their seat in the lower posterior portions, 
while the moral and religious depend upon the upper por- 
tions, and the intellectual upon the frontal lobes. To en- 
sure the perpetuity and the best interests of the family, 
all the parts or all the faculties of the brain must co-oper- 
ate. 

Connected with those views two important considera- 
tions should be borne in mind: 1st. That exercise in- 
creases the parts, physical or mental, which are used, while 
neglect of exercise diminishes them. Thus a constant 
change for the better or the worse may be going on in the 
organization and character of an individual. 

2d. The establishment of a general law of population 
affords an explanation of the laws of inheritance. These 
spring from the former, and constitute one general plan ; 
for without a general law or guiding principle these hered- 
itary influences cannot correctly be understood, or success- 
fully applied. It is through the brain that mental quali- 
ties are transmitted ; and by the adoption of a normal 
standard of physiology, applied both to the body and the 
brain, the laws of inheritance become intelligible. The 
physiological laws which have been considered in respect 
to population, hold an intimate relation to the family. The 
more thoroughly this science is investigated, the more ex- 



THE NEW ENGLAND FAMILY. I/J7 

tensive and practical shall we find its principles as applica- 
ble to every-day life. It will enable us better to under- 
stand individual peculiarities, and the relations we sustain 
one to another, especially in domestic life. 

This will appear more and more evident in the discus- 
sion of the subject now before us. 

The value and permanency of the family as an institu- 
tion can not be too highly estimated. It is indispensable 
to all civilized society. 

It is the nursery of the church, and no people or nation 
can prosper long without it. Wherever in the history of 
the world a people have attained the greatest prosperity, 
or advanced to the highest civilization, there the interests 
of the family have been most sacredly guarded and pre- 
served. It was so in the prosperous days of Greece and 
Rome. The same facts were true in regard to the Jewish 
nation. 

In Great Britain, from its earliest history to the present 
time, the family has been looked upon with a sacred rev- 
erence. Civil authority has surrounded it with the 
strongest safeguards, and the church has regarded it as 
one of divine appointment. On nothing have the affec- 
tions of the English people centered more than on the 
home, and nowhere else have the relations of the family 
been more permanent than in the land of our fathers. 
The greater the culture and refinement, and the stronger 
the religious element, the purer and more sacred has been 
the tie that has bound families together. 

Such is this institution in Great Britain at the present 
day, and such was its character among the Puritans in the 
early history of New England. The family stood with 
the church in the respect and affections of the early set- 
tlers. The relation of husband and wife, of parents and 
children, was held as most sacred. The mutual interest of 
the parties in these relations generally lasted through life, 



I48 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

their sympathies growing stronger and stronger, and their 
attachments more tender. For two hundred years the 
homes of New England were well nigh models. The fam- 
ilies were generally large, and lived in a kind of patriarchal 
style. The government centered in the united head of the 
family, was usually administered in kindness and in ac- 
cordance with high Biblical principles. Seldom was there 
a separation between the husband and wife, or was there 
discord among the members of a family. The instances of 
breaking away from parental authority were rare, and it 
was not often that a son or daughter turned out badly in 
life. The fruits of good discipline, faithful instruction, and 
early training in the family, were everywhere visible. 

In the history of no people, probably, can there be found 
better illustrations of well-ordered families than for two 
hundred years were found in New England. While the 
religious training was prominent, the education of the in- 
tellectual was carefully attended to, and the social and 
domestic affections were most wisely developed. 

But the New England family is not the same now that 
it was two hundred years ago. Changes that deserve 
careful consideration are taking place with respect to its 
character and permanence. That we may better under- 
stand these changes, and the dangers that threaten the 
family, let us inquire briefly what is its true foundation 
— what its primary objects. The family has a two-fold 
foundation — the sacred Scriptures and a man's physical 
organization. The Bible teaches that this institution was 
established in Eden, and all through the Old Testament 
and the New, it is regarded as the corner-stone of the 
church and state, — in fact it was itself the early church 
and state. The family in all places in the Bible is treated 
as of divine appointment. The family institution is based 
also upon physical laws which are a counterpart of Reve- 
lation. These laws always harmonize perfectly with the 



THE NEW ENGLAND FAMILY. I49 

revealed will of God, when both are correctly interpreted. 
Independently therefore of the Scriptures, or of any di- 
vine teachings, or examples, we believe the necessity of 
such an institution as the family can be proved from phys- 
iology alone. 

There are fundamental laws in this science which clearly 
point in that direction, and can not otherwise be correctly 
understood or properly observed. Moreover, it may be 
proved that the race can not be perpetuated in its best 
estate or highest development without such an institution. 

Taking this view of the subject, we shall find the appli- 
cations and observance of these laws to be of the greatest 
consequence. 

What then are the teachings of Revelation and Science 
as to the primary objects of marriage or the family? The 
teachings of the former are briefly stated or summarized 
in works on the subject, in formulas of marriage, in litur- 
gies and prayer books, by both the Protestant and Catho- 
lic churches throughout Christendom, as follows : ist, 
The production of children. 2d, The preservation of 
chastity ; and 3d, Mutual company and help. 

That these simple propositions constitute the primary 
objects of marriage can be substantiated by the testimony 
of writers of the highest authority connected with all the 
leading religious denominations, both in this country and 
in Europe. The experience of family life in Christian na- 
tions, where there has been the greatest amount of cul- 
ture, morality, and piety, confirms also the truth of these 
statements. It may be added that these propositions are 
not antiquated or superseded ; that whatever religious 
changes have taken place, or modern fashions have been 
adopted by society, the objects and relations of the family 
remain the same. Many changes have been made in so- 
ciety which may be considered real improvements, but it 
is not so with the family ; its laws are fixed and unchange- 



I50 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

able. But it is not left for the sacred Scriptures alone, 
nor even experience, to prove the truth of the propositions 
here stated. The laws of the physical system afford the 
strongest possible evidence. 

Such is the construction of the organs of the human 
body, including the brain, and such are their functions, 
that if exercised normally, they are adapted to secure all of 
the objects here specified. If there is a real defect in the 
structure or function in any part of the system, or if there 
is a failure in securing either of the objects stated, it goes 
so far to weaken or impair the marriage relation. It mat- 
ters not whether this occurs through ignorance or design, 
these laws can not be violated with impunity. If this vio- 
lation of law is designed with a motive prompting to it, 
and a will sactioning it, the injury is not mere physical, 
but a most serious one to the mind, and destructive of 
moral principle. Let such violation be often repeated and 
long continued, and the injury to the body and the whole 
spiritual nature is incalculable. No one but a physician 
can fully appreciate it, or forecast its consequences. 

Nowhere have these primary objects of marriage been 
secured in a higher degree than among the earlier settlers 
of New England. Nowhere has the marriage relation 
been happier, more permanent, and attended with better 
or greater results. But has there not been within fifty 
years a wide departure from the examples and teachings 
of these settlers ? Has there not been a marked deteri- 
oration in the sacredness of this relation, and have not the 
influences and motives leading to the formation of mar- 
riage sunk to a lower plane ? In short, have not the pri- 
mary objects of marriage been more or less lost sight of, 
and the relation been considered very much in the light of 
mere partnership, intended to promote simply the con- 
venience and self-interests of the parties ? If a change of 
this character has been made from what may be consid- 



THE NEW ENGLAND FAMILY. 151 

ered a normal, healthy, religious basis, to one abnormal, 
artificial, and selfish, it is very evident that its fruits or re- 
sults must prove unfavorable. 

The family as an institution must be based mainly upon 
the domestic affections, guided by the intellect and con- 
trolled by the moral sentiments ; otherwise the relations 
can not be either happy or permanent. 

But a change in this respect has been gradually taking 
place among a large class in New England. The cause of 
the change is a greater diversity in pursuits, modes of do- 
ing business, the powerful influence of fashion, a higher 
style of living, and a more artificial state of society. 

The general introduction of foreign help, we believe, has 
had in a variety of ways an injurious effect upon the fam- 
ily. It has caused that all kinds of domestic service — ex- 
tending to that performed by the members of one's own 
family — is looked upon generally as menial and degrad- 
ing. Once, American girls in large numbers were em- 
ployed to do house-work, which not only educated them in 
the best possible manner to perform all such duties, but 
at the same time improved their constitutions and gave 
them physical strength. 

No kind of work or exercise is so well calculated to de- 
velop all parts of woman's physical system as house- 
work. The variety of it, being always at hand, and suit- 
ing itself to one's convenience, would seem to indicate 
that Nature expressly designed it for the healthy develop- 
ment of woman's constitution. In this way not only good 
health and a knowledge of domestic duties are obtained, 
but also the best fitness and qualifications possible for the 
relations of the family. 

Few American girls can be found at the present day 
who are willing to engage in domestic service, and those 
living at home do only the lighter kinds of work, — the 
harder portions being performed by their mothers or hired 



152 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

help. By neglecting work in the kitchen and the home, 
and seeking pursuits that tax chiefly the brain and ner- 
vous system, the young woman not only changes her habits 
and character, but her organization. Large numbers from 
five to fifteen years of age are confined in school, and have 
very little time for work or exercise. Thus the brain and 
nervous temperament of the young woman become unduly 
developed, and she fails to secure that physical strength 
and stamina which are indispensable for discharging the 
duties and responsibilities of the family. 

As a result of this change of physical organization and 
supreme devotion to brain development, pursuits and ob- 
jects of interest are sought away from home. Thus a de- 
sire is created for a more artificial life, a higher style of 
living, and hence a multiplication of wants. 

To such an extent have these things gone, that there is 
set before the young New England people a higher and 
more expensive standard of living than the majority have 
the physical strength or pecuniary means to support. 
Young men contemplating marriage and finding they can 
not adopt this standard of living, are compelled to postpone 
it till they can obtain the means, or they give it up en- 
tirely. 

When matrimony is seriously contemplated, its delay 
usually multiplies these obstacles, and the plan fails of 
completion. Those who postpone it are exposed to many 
temptations, and often find that the habits formed in sin- 
gle life become fixed, so that when they do marry, the re- 
lation does not prove what they expected, and instead of a 
happy or perfect union, unpleasantness and discord mar 
their life. Also, those who enter upon married life early 
encounter many difficulties. They must live in boarding- 
houses, or at hotels, or have rooms in one place and take 
their meals at another. In case they commence house- 
keeping, finding they can not live in just the style they 



THE NEW ENGLAND FAMILY. 153 

wish and have their wants gratified, they resort to more 
rigid economy and closer calculations in expenses. The 
questions of personal comfort, of fashion, and self-interest 
have a controlling influence. For preventing or reducing 
expenses, a sharp eye is had to those things that cost the 
most, rather than to what is most useful in making a vir- 
tuous, healthful, and happy home. With too many young 
women the fashions of the day and the attractions of so- 
ciety have more influence than the duties and enjoyments 
of home. The monotony and confinement of domestic life 
become irksome, its cares and labors burdensome, so that 
no increase in numbers can be encouraged. The least 
change in that direction is looked upon as so much addi- 
tional care, burden, and expense. By this and other 
means, the foundation of marriage is transferred from the 
domestic affections to the selfish sentiments and the intel- 
lect. What must be the effect of such notions on the con- 
duct and character of individuals ? Do they not tend to 
make them more selfish and weaken the domestic ties ? 
While these remarks may seem to reflect more particu- 
larly on women, they are not so intended ; man is a party 
and partner in all this. 

Again : What is the effect of this change in respect to 
the primary object of marriage, viz: the production of 
offspring ? This is no trivial question. Language can 
not express its importance in its bearing upon the family. 
All we can do here is to state a few facts and inferences. 

For half a century or more the birth-rate in New Eng- 
land has been steadily diminishing, and for the last 
twenty or thirty years much more rapidly than at any 
former period. Our birth-rate is now lower than that of 
any European nation except France, and when confined to 
the American class, it is lower than that of France. 

The birth-rate and the death-rate are approximating in 
New England, so that it is very questionable whether in 
11 



154 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

many places there is any increase of population among 
native New Englanders. The increase is confined almost 
wholly to the foreign element. The birth-rate among the 
Irish, Scotch, English, and Germans is twice as large as 
among the Americans. 

Among the foreigners are many large families, and only 
a few married couples without children ; whereas among 
Americans there are many married people who have no 
children, and very few that have large families. 

What a contrast do the families of the present day pre- 
sent to those of one hundred years ago, in which were 
eight, ten, twelve, or more children? In 1875, a census of 
Massachusetts was taken by families, which brought out 
some striking facts. While the number of foreign fami- 
lies is much the smaller, they report a large majority of 
the births. In tables representing the number of children 
at different ages in American and foreign families, there 
is a surprising contrast. In the former, there are only a 
few large families, and many consisting of only one, two, 
or three persons. The census reports at that time in Mas- 
sachusetts 359,009 families ; of these, 23,739 consisted of 
only one person; 115,456 of only two, and 140,974 of 
only three persons. 

While the census does not report the number of chil- 
dren in these three classes — making in the aggregate 
279,569 families — it is evident there were very few. The 
great body of the children must belong to 79,446 families, 
constituting the balance. A large proportion of this class 
of families is undoubtedly foreign. As to the increase of 
population reported by the census and other authorities, 
we are in danger of being misled. If no foreign element 
had ever settled in New England, or if this class could 
now be entirely eliminated, the changes in population 
would be far better understood. It would be seen at once 
what the increase is and whence it came. It would de- 



THE NEW ENGLAND FAMILY. 155 

velop a class of facts, we apprehend, that for a civilized 
people has no parallel in history. 

There is another way in which both census and regis- 
tration reports may deceive us. These documents base 
their tables or figures upon nativity, and not upon nation- 
ality. Some registration reports have endeavored to dis- 
tinguish between the two classes, so that reliable data 
might be furnished, showing the relative growth ; but find- 
ing so many difficulties in the way, it is now generally 
abandoned. 

Thus the transition from foreign to American is rapidly 
taking place in New England. All born here are called 
"Americans." It should be borne in mind that the census, 
in reporting the largest class of families in Massachusetts 
as consisting of but three persons, includes the foreign 
element in the count. If this enumeration of the family 
in the state had been confined to the settlers, it would 
make quite a difference. It is unfortunate that the real 
facts in the case can not be obtained. Few persons are 
aware how rapidly this foreign element is increasing in 
New England. In several of the states the annual regis- 
tration reports have returned for years a majority of births 
as being of this class. The school children in nearly all 
the cities are composed largely of those of foreign descent. 
The Catholic World, published in New York, estimated, 
in 1877 that nearly seventy per cent, of all the births in 
New England belonged to Roman Catholic families. That 
estimate seemed large at the time, but it is undoubtedly 
too small now. Since then over one hundred thousand 
Canadian - French have come into New England, who 
abound in children. It is estimated that foreigners com- 
pose but a little more than one-quarter of the whole 
population. 

There is another test of the family institution which 
indicates a deterioration. Within twenty or thirty years 



156 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

there has been an alarming increase of divorces in New 
England. These are confined almost entirely to Protes- 
tants and native Americans. The statistics on this sub- 
ject have been carefully collected and tabulated for years. 
It appears by these tables that divorces have been steadily 
increasing in all the New England states. The latest 
return (1879) 1S as follows: — 

One divorce in Connecticut to eight marriages ; one to 
nine in Rhode Island; one to thirteen in Vermont, and 
one to fifteen in Massachusetts. As Maine and New 
Hampshire have never published any official reports of 
divorces and marriages, the exact ratio for these states 
can not be given ; but from partial statistics obtained, and 
from other sources, it is very evident that they make no 
better showing than Vermont and Massachusetts. The 
records of the courts show also that about one-fourth of 
those applying for divorce fail to obtain it, on account of 
adverse evidence or opposing facts developed in process 
of trial. From .the large number of divorces and the ex- 
posure it makes of personal and private matters, the pre- 
sumption is that there must be many more families where 
discord and variance exist, but they decline to bring their 
troubles before the public. It should be stated that most 
divorces are obtained within a few years after marriage, 
and generally there are few or no children, even if the 
parties have been married many years. It should also be 
stated that among no other people or nation, at the present 
time, do we find divorces to such an extent ; and at no 
former period in history have they ever been so numerous, 
except in Greece and Rome, shortly before their downfall, 
and in France a little after the French revolution. 

Why should there be in New England so great a prev- 
alence of divorces ? It might be supposed, from the social, 
educational, and religious influences existing, this would 
be the last place where the family, the most important of 



THE NEW ENGLAND FAMILY. 157 

all our institutions, would thus be broken down. It does 
not arise from any alteration in the laws, for the demand 
came first, and as the appeals became more urgent and 
numerous, legislation has been changed or modified in 
their favor. Divorces have greatly increased in several 
of the Western states, where society is constantly chang- 
ing, and things generally are in a more unsettled condition. 
It might be expected that there marriages would be hastily 
formed and on too slight an acquaintance ; but in the state 
of Ohio we find a singular development of facts. As 
these have a most significant bearing on several points 
under discussion, we quote the following statement from a 
lecture given Feb. 25, 1881, by Rev. S. W. Dike, in the 
Monday course of lectures at Tremont Temple, in Bos- 
ton : — 

" In the Western Reserve, comprising the twelve north- 
eastern counties of Ohio, settled mainly by emigrants who 
went from Connecticut long before that state entered upon 
its new departure in divorce, and containing, it is said, a 
purer New England stock than can be found in the entire 
country, unless it be in parts of Maine, the ratio of 
divorces to marriages was from 1 to 11.8 for the two years, 
1878 and 1879, while in the rest of the state it is 1 to 19.9. 
Nor is the worst of the Reserve in the cities. The ratio 
in Ashtabula county, among a farming people originally 
from New England, is 1 to 8.5; and in Lake county the 
proportion of divorce suits begun to marriages is 1 to 6.2, 
and of divorces granted, 1 to 7.4. Unless there be like 
counties in Maine, this is the worst county in divorces in 
the United States, except Tolland county, Conn., as that 
was for a few years. But if you go down to Gallia county, 
peopled with Welshmen and Southerners, the ratio is 1 to 
50, and in Coshocton, 1 to 47.2. The divorce-rate in these 
counties of the Reserve is several times what it is in 
these and other counties. I am told, too, that the birth- 
rate in Ohio is lowest where the divorce-rate is highest. 
It is said that the people of these counties are the most 
intelligent and virtuous in the country, and that the law- 



158 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

abiding citizens of the Reserve go to the courts for divorce, 
while those in other counties do not." 

In the same state and under the same laws, why should 
there be this difference in the ratio of divorces ? Why 
should there be one divorce to every six marriages among 
the "most intelligent and virtuous" people in Ohio, while 
there is only one in fifty among the less cultivated and 
refined portions of the same state ? It should be borne in 
mind that the people occupying that part of Ohio desig- 
nated "Western Reserve" are in their origin New Eng- 
enders, transplanted to a richer soil and a more widely 
extended territory. They are understood to have New 
England religious principles, educational advantages, and 
domestic habits ; but these people are generally composed 
of the second, third, and fourth generations of those once 
emigrating from Connecticut. After so many years, and 
so long a separation, why should the family there partake 
of the same character as in Connecticut, in respect to the 
fewness of children ? May not the reasons be the same 
as in New England, — a departure from the primary object 
of marriage, but especially a radical change in woman's 
physical organization ? 

No satisfactory explanation of these facts about divorce 
can be given except as we refer them to a physical cause. 
Changes in the laws, differences in the religious character, 
in educational advantages, and family training, can not 
fully account for them. 

The second object of marriage is chastity. Many things 
show that marriage now fails to secure this object to the 
extent it should. That adultery is brought forward so 
prominently among the charges against one of the married 
parties, to obtain divorce, is pretty sure proof. In Massa- 
chusetts this charge is proven in more than one-third of 
the divorce cases ; in Rhode Island and Connecticut about 



THE NEW ENGLAND FAMILY. 1 59 

one-third, and in Vermont one-fourth, making for the 
whole fully one-third. In the attempts to obtain divorce, 
it is well understood that adultery is a difficult charge to 
substantiate in court, so that if the crime is actually 
proved in one-third of all the cases, there is reason to be- 
lieve that licentiousness prevails extensively, not only in 
married life, but far beyond those bounds. 

While it may be difficult to show to what extent or in 
what way marriage at the present day fails to secure 
chastity, there are some practices bearing on the subject 
which are alarming. That licentiousness is actually in- 
creasing in New England, it may be difficult to prove by 
facts and figures, but that covert vice of this character, in 
certain forms, is positively increasing, would be the testi- 
mony, we believe, of the most competent judges, — es- 
pecially of members of the medical profession. 

In order to obtain evidence on this subject, the Rev. 
S. W. Dike, of Vermont, instituted lately the following 
experiment, which we give in his own language. In his 
lecture on "Divorce," given at Boston, Jan. 24, 1881, Mr. 
Dike says : " I sent a list of questions to a hundred or 
more gentlemen in nearly all parts of New England, — 
mostly judges, state's attorneys, lawyers, police officers, 
large numbers of physicians, and specialists, with a few 
clergymen. Nearly all responded. About seventy letters 
are of value for the purposes of classification. These 
cover probably one hundred towns and cities, giving the 
opinions of nearly two hundred persons who were con- 
sulted in their preparation. I form, so far as these letters 
go, the opinion that there is probably less of open and 
coarse vice of certain kinds in many respectable country 
towns than there was seventy or eighty years ago ; very 
likely less than there was fifty years ago. But with this 
exception, which covers but a part of our country towns 
and occasionally a city, as correct a summary of opinions 



l60 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

as I could give, would be like this : in three-fourths of 
the localities reporting on this point licentiousness is said 
to be increasing. In nearly as many the destruction of 
unborn life goes on as fast, or faster, than ever. Physi- 
cians are very emphatic on this point, and many speak 
with great indignation of the wicked practices of some 
church members. In one-half the places licentiousness 
and drinking are found together, while one-quarter report 
more licentious than intemperate persons in their com- 
munications. Nearly all find this increase among the 
native population." 

Few persons are aware how extensively this "destruction 
of unborn life " is carried on, even in what are considered 
the better classes of society. But the "arts of prevention," 
which are also being extensively employed, are a far more 
dangerous foe, not only to the family, but to the virtue 
and purity of the community. They open in a covert 
way the flood-gates of iniquity. If violations of law are 
encouraged in married life, and found to be safely practised 
there, the same things will be attempted outside, and the 
primary object of marriage will be defeated. Methods 
that have long been employed in France have become not 
only well understood here, but improved upon by Yankee 
skill and ingenuity. Besides the viciousness and crimi- 
nality of such practices, their evil effects upon the physical 
organization are incalculable. Every physiologist who has 
given the subject careful consideration will testify to the 
truth of this statement. The very existence of the family 
is imperiled, we believe, more by these practices than by 
all other agencies combined. 

In the present state of society there is another way in 
which licentiousness is increased. In consequence of the 
reduction of the marriage-rate and postponement of the 
time of marriage, we now find a much larger number of 
persons of both sexes, at a marriageable age, in the com- 



THE NEW ENGLAND FAMILY. l6l 

munity than formerly. This increases the temptations to 
licentiousness, both within and without the marriage 
circle. 

The fact has been well established by experience, that 
early marriages are the best safeguard to virtue and 
chastity. When we consider, in this state of society, how 
the practices referred to above are thought to secure the 
violators of law from exposure, what powerful temptations 
are presented to the passions ! Virtue and moral principle 
do not afford sufficiently strong barriers to restrain ex- 
cited passions, which, under such circumstances, can be 
so easily gratified. The eating of forbidden fruit creates 
a distaste for that which is pure and holy. The high and 
noble objects of the family institution are defeated; its 
true pleasures and enjoyments are lost, and mankind sinks 
to a level far beneath that occupied by the brutes. Chas- 
tity violated carries with it a dreadful penalty. From this 
Nemesis no guilty one, man or woman, can escape. 

As to the third object of marriage, — " mutual help and 
company," — it is difficult to ascertain exactly to what ex- 
tent this is secured. On account of the changes in the 
times and the different modes of doing business, men are 
kept away from their homes more than formerly. Such 
also are the competition in trade and the expensive style of 
living, that men are compelled to throw their whole ener- 
gies into business, early and late, to the neglect of domes- 
tic duties. Such is the strain, the "wear and tear," upon 
body and mind, that men in active business break down 
early, especially in cities. Thus the rate of mortality has 
considerably increased among this class, and there is also 
a greater number of widows than formerly. Also men 
and women are drawn away from their homes more now 
than formerly, to summer and even winter resorts, for 
society, rest, and recreation ; and these places are often 
scenes of temptation. There are also lodges, clubs, con- 



1 62 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

certs, and saloons, which draw together the people. The 
attraction in either case is stronger than the attractions 
of home. The influence that centers in these places is 
not always the highest, the taste cultivated not such as 
ministers to the wants of man's nobler nature. Many hus- 
bands spend much time in this way, which they could more 
profitably devote to their families. Much of their hard- 
earned money is thus unwisely consumed. What they 
give to gild and decorate public places would make their 
homes a paradise. 

While the introduction of foreign help into domestic 
service has its advantages, it is at the same time attended 
with many disadvantages. Its effect upon the family in- 
stitution deserves far more consideration than it has 
received. One obvious effect of employing foreign domes- 
tic help has been to impair the constitution and health of 
New England women. This is a most serious injury in 
its relations to the family, and especially in its bearings 
upon the welfare of the race. It tends to prevent that 
training and education of the American girl in the kitchen 
and home duties, which are so essential in domestic life. 
Instead of learning in the kitchen the art of good cook- 
ing, the girl now finds it more convenient to study it in 
books, and to be taught it by lectures in school. But 
this mode of instruction frequently comes too late in life ; 
besides, very few even pursue this mode. Good house- 
keeping is a great home attraction. Economy, neatness, 
order, and good cooking are indispensable requisites to 
the health and happiness of a family. 

In no way are the bonds of the family so firmly ce- 
mented and strengthened as by the comfort and happiness 
of the home; and these depend much upon the persons 
by whom household duties are performed. It may be said 
that the present mode of educating girls, and giving them 
the advantages of greater refinement and higher accom- 



THE NEW ENGLAND FAMILY. 163 

plishments, makes them better company and more fit to 
take charge of domestic affairs. But if this course of 
education impairs their strength and injures their health, 
how can such girls become practical housekeepers ? In- 
valids make poor housewives. In the marriage relation 
a sound constitution and good health are of primary impor- 
tance. The lack of these is one of the greatest abatements 
to domestic happiness, and furnishes a prolific source of 
trouble in married life; and, when their importance be- 
comes better understood, multitudes will be deterred by 
this alone from entering the marriage relation. 

There are some general considerations that have an im- 
portant bearing upon this subject. Registration reports 
show that the marriage-rate has been, for many years, les- 
sening in New England, and also that marriages are more 
frequently postponed to a late period in life. The census 
of 1870 reported that fifty-four per cent, of the adult popu- 
lation in Massachusetts were unmarried, and only about 
one-half of this per cent, was under twenty years of age. 
This fact shows that a large number of adults in this state 
were leading a single life. If the foreign element could 
be eliminated from society, this proportion would relatively 
be much larger. The same fact applies to other New 
England states. The proportion of adults leading a single 
life is likely to increase. Such a state of society is ab- 
normal, and operates in a variety of ways unfavorably to 
the family. 

The causes that have led to this can in part be explained, 
but the remedies for the evil can not so easily be applied. 
The elements, physical and mental, that constitute the 
family relations and cement and perpetuate them, are not 
fixed quantities. They may become weakened or strength- 
ened by our own acts ; even radical changes in disposition 
and character may be effected by hereditary influences, 
and thus be transmitted from one generation to another. 



164 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Not only the family, but the highest interests of the race, 
are involved in these hereditary influences. 

Formerly New England women found little difficulty in 
nursing their offspring; this is true at the present day 
with the English, the Irish, and the German women living 
in our country. But not more than one-half of our young 
New England mothers can now properly nurse their off- 
spring, and this number is every year decreasing. 

It is said that this neglect arises from unwillingness on 
the part of mothers. This may be true occasionally, but 
it is not the rule. Inability, from lack of sufficient devel- 
opment of the mammary glands, and the requisite power 
in the digestive organs, is the real cause. The nervous 
system has been developed unduly, while the sympathetic, 
affectional, and muscular natures have been stinted. The 
failure to nurse offspring shows something radically 
wrong. The like of it, to such an extent at least, can 
not be found anywhere, either in history or among the 
women of any other race or nation at the present day. 
Evidently the divine office of maternity — woman's bright 
crown, her grandest privilege — is here passing away. 
The laws of Nature make supply and demand co-extensive 
and interdependent. If mothers nurse their children, 
they have and keep the power; if they neglect it, they 
lose the power. If they have lost the power, some impor- 
tant law has been violated. There may be instances of 
natural infirmity, disease, defect, or idiosyncrasy of organi- 
zation, which account for the inability to nurse. Such 
cases are very rare, and they excite no alarm ; but when 
the inability becomes common, including perhaps a ma- 
jority of married women, and is rapidly increasing, it may 
well awaken anxiety. If this goes on, what will the end 
be ? What will the woman of the next generation, and 
her successors, become ? 

Connected with the inability of mothers to nurse their 



THE NEW ENGLAND FAMILY. 165 

children, another change of vital significance is going on, 
— there is dying out of our women the "love of offspring." 
This love constitutes the noblest and purest of all the in- 
stincts or affections in women. It was wisely designed 
by the Creator that this should become, especially in 
females, a leading feature in their character. Accordingly 
we find among the women of all tribes and nations this 
"love of offspring" very predominant; and the more 
enlightened and Christian a people are, the purer and 
stronger should be this affection. While this instinct is 
naturally one of the strongest, and is intended to have a 
dominant influence in life, the whole order of a normal, 
healthy state of society encourages and develops it more 
and more. 

What could be more unfortunate than that we should 
find certain influences operating in society to stifle, sup- 
press, and crush out this natural affection ! The agencies 
so pernicious are not described in books, nor are they 
taught in schools, and very little talk is heard in society 
respecting them. Still they are all-powerful; as much so 
as self-interest and fashion can possibly make them. 

There seems to be a settled determination among many 
New England women approaching or entering the mar- 
riage relation, not to be troubled with the incumbrances 
of children, or at least to make their number very limited. 
It is true this sentiment or purpose, so unnatural, so un- 
becoming, is not proclaimed publicly, but it is well under- 
stood by the parties themselves, and it is the general 
sentiment of what is called cultivated and refined society. 
They compliment those who have none or a very small 
number of children, while comments, not pleasant or 
becoming to hear, are made respecting those who have 
large families or a goodly number of children. This, we 
know, is a grave charge, and may shock the sensibilities 
of some and be repelled by others; but we think it is 



l66 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

true. Connected with the above is another most baneful 
sentiment, which is gradually creeping into popular favor 
among young people, — that the bearing and rearing of 
children belong to low life and are degrading. Whenever 
married couples in city or country town are blessed with 
several children, remarks or insinuations are frequently 
made, reflecting upon them, implying that their life is 
vulgar and sensual. The manner and tone are more sig- 
nificant than the language. But the sentiment is not 
confined to verbal expression. It crops out often in a 
variety of ways in the popular magazines and books of 
the day. 

How different the teachings and examples set before 
us in the Scriptures ! How different the instructions and 
illustrations found in Grecian and Roman history ! How 
different from the spirit and practice of the best society 
in Great Britain! And what a change in this respect 
between the women of the present day and those of a 
hundred years ago ! 

The "arts of destruction and prevention of human life," 
referred to in another part of this paper, are comparatively 
unknown among the Irish, English, and Germans of New 
England. But if the "arts" here practised, with all their 
ruinous effects, could be brought to light, they would make 
a terrible revelation. If physicians should tell all they 
know on this subject, it would make a shocking disclosure. 

There is one place in particular where the maternal 
relation is brought to the test, and to which physicians 
are not unfrequently witnesses. We can not describe it 
better than in the language of one of the oldest and most 
distinguished physicians in Boston, who has had a very 
large obstetric practice. 

In the December number of the Boston Medical and 

Surgical Journal iox 1879, Doctor A says: "In the 

early part of my practice the prevailing fashion and desire 



THE NEW ENGLAND FAMILY. 1 67 

among married women were to bear children and rear 
families. They possessed the courage, and were willing 
to suffer for such a boon. To be barren was considered 
among the Jews a curse of the Almighty, and many of our 
grandmothers cherished sentiments akin to this. Tern- 
pora mutantur ! What physician at the present day has 
not had to hang his head for shame, and feel the strength 
of his moral indignation rise, at witnessing the apathy or 
positive dislike — to use no stronger term — with which 
the first faint cry of the new-born infant is received ? — I 
can not say welcomed — by the friends, and perhaps by the 
suffering mother ! . . . I have never known an Irish 
mother, no matter how poor, or how many little ragged 
children around her, that did not receive every new-born 
babe with emotions and expressions of gratitude, as a 
blessed gift from God. This sentiment, however rudely 
expressed, has never failed to win my admiration ; and I 
take pleasure in pointing it out as the finest trait of Irish 
female character." 

What a contrast do these two pictures present ! How 
tender and natural the latter ! how cold and heartless the 
former ! If such is the reception of the infant at birth, 
what will be its care and treatment in life ? Then, if the 
infant is deprived of its natural nourishment at the breast, 
and is fed artificially, there being at the same time a lack 
of strong natural affection for children, it is not strange 
that infant mortality has greatly increased. It is the tes- 
timony of physicians that no one thing is so conducive to 
the health and life of the infant as a plenty of good breast- 
milk, and this is generally accompanied with strong natural 
affection. 

Again : If the love of offspring is constantly suppressed, 
and in the course of time in a great measure eradicated, 
what is to be its effect upon female character ? Will it 
not destroy in a measure the family element in women ? 



l68 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Nothing strengthens the ties between husband and wife 
so much as children ; nothing binds together a family so 
closely, and makes home so attractive, as the paternal 
relations. But if the primary object of marriage is de- 
feated, soon the family will be a thing of the past. 

In conclusion, we remark that the foes described as 
threatening the New England family have not come sud- 
denly into existence, nor do they rest upon the surface of 
society. There is a lack of that patriotism which leads 
one to endure pain and practise self-denial to people this 
land. There is a wide-spread spirit of luxury, which 
makes both men and women seek supremely their present 
and personal enjoyment. There is too little of that high 
moral principle that prompts people to forget self and find 
their life in giving life and happiness to others. There 
is also too little value set upon the worth of an im- 
mortal soul. If parents can bring into existence and rear 
up for endless bliss a never-dying spirit, how great the 
privilege ! But. these considerations, so powerful in the 
early settlers of New England, have greatly ceased to in- 
fluence our people. Selfishness, the love of ease and 
present enjoyment, and living for this world only, have 
become dominant ; and they have already wrought so 
much evil that a change in woman's physical organization 
is one of the results. And this effect now itself operates 
as a cause to hasten on the ruin which is impending over 
the family. 

Again : These foes are not the product of a true civil- 
ization, or of pure Christianity. They arise from a direct 
violation of the spirit of the latter and the laws of the 
former. The most effective means of reform consists in 
exposing the origin of these evils and their dangerous 
tendencies. The question may be asked, Have not these 
evils already got such headway that they can not be ar- 
rested ? Certainly not. The family is not what it once 



THE NEW ENGLAND FAMILY. 1 69 

was in New England. The difference does not consist in 
numbers merely, but a failure in the unity and strength 
of all the relations which make the institution stable and 
prosperous. Considering the great importance of the 
family in its influence upon society and human welfare, 
its purity and strength should be most sacredly guarded, 
and its welfare most earnestly sought. It may seem to 
some persons that the changes and dangers here described 
as going on in the family are overrated. Such may be the 
impression of those who have never given the subject 
much thought or consideration, and who look only upon 
the surface of society; but no one, who has carefully 
watched for years the undercurrents of influence, and at 
the same time recognized the powerful agency of physical 
laws in the formation of habit and character, can be of 
that opinion. It is the change of woman's organization, 
instinct, and character, — and that, too, in the wrong 
direction, — which clothes the subject with so much im- 
portance. But it is not the women, or family of the pres- 
ent, that alone suffer: it is the type of organization, the 
hereditary tendencies, that must be taken into account. 
These will be transmitted in an intensified form. The 
interests of the race and of generations are involved in 
the issue. It is this which gives the subject transcendent 
importance. 

12 



The Prevention of Insanity. 



TNSANITY is to be ranked among the greatest misfor- 
tunes that can befall a human being. It may deprive 
him of his rights as a citizen, his right to manage his own 
property, his right to testify as witness in court, and the 
right even of his own person. He becomes at once an 
object of distrust and notoriety. He is liable to be forced 
away from his home and his friends, and be confined in a 
lunatic hospital. He is also subjected to great expenses, 
which his own estate must pay, or his friends ; if these 
fail, the place of his residence, or the commonwealth, must 
maintain him. . These expenses in time become very large, 
frequently consuming all the means of the insane and that 
of their friends, to such an extent that they have to be 
supported by the public, — that is, they become paupers. 
In case the disease assumes a chronic form it generally 
continues through life. According to established life 
tables, it is found that a man twenty years old, becoming 
insane, will have an average insanity of a little over twenty- 
one years. The least cost of supporting an insane person 
in a lunatic hospital can not be less than two hundred dol- 
lars per annum. Thus it will be seen that in twenty-one 
years the expenses of support will exceed four thousand 
dollars. But this is not all ; there should be reckoned in 
the account the value of his services or earnings, which 

* The thoughts in this paper were suggested by serving as commissioner 
of lunacy in 1874, and also by frequent visits to the lunatic hospitals while a 
member of the Board of State Charities. 



THE PREVENTION OF INSANITY. I/I 

would accrue to his family or to his friends, in case he were 
early restored to health. This would amount in the same 
time to a much larger sum. 

Now, if this insanity could be prevented, what an ad- 
vantage it would prove, even in a pecuniary point of view ! 
The physical suffering, the distress of friends, the anguish 
of mind, the loss of reason attending a life thus spent, no 
language can describe. 

I. What is Insanity? — In the whole history of medi- 
cine there is no disease about which there have been such 
absurd and contradictory notions. These can be traced 
back to the earliest period, both of profane and sacred 
history. Reference is made in the Scriptures, in several 
instances, to persons "mad," acting a " false character," 
and governed by some "evil spirit." A notion prevailed 
that in all such cases some demoniac or satanic agency 
had taken possession of such persons, and that surely they 
were not in their right mind. These views respecting 
insanity were generally entertained by the Jews, and, with 
some slight modifications, prevailed among the Greeks and 
Romans. 

It is a singular fact, that in all those cases where "mad- 
ness " was attributed to persons, it was believed they were 
afflicted or controlled by an "evil spirit " ; that it was not 
from a voluntary internal movement, but that they were 
taken possession of by some secret, mysterious agency 
outside, which was evil in its design and foreboded no 
good. Such were the views of insanity entertained not only 
in those times, but which continued to have a powerful 
influence for centuries later. And notwithstanding their 
absurdity and extravagance, multitudes at the present day 
are more or less affected by these strange notions. 

While the evidences of this "madness" were manifested 
through the body, singular views also prevailed with ref- 
erence to the soul or mind — that it was an essence or 



172 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

entity, acting independently of the body, and governed by 
no fixed laws or principles. The theories entertained in 
respect to the mind were so vague and indefinite that they 
served to mystify the subject of insanity. 

II. Functions of the Brain. — Early in the present cen- 
tury special inquiries were made in respect to the functions 
of the brain; and, after many experiments and extended 
observations, it was generally conceded that the brain, in 
some sense, was the organ of the mind. If, therefore, 
normal, healthy operations of the mind depended upon 
the brain, should this organ become disturbed or in any 
way affected, it would at once change the character and 
action of the mind. This theory enables us to understand 
much better what is meant by insanity, or mental derange- 
ment; and just in proportion as the various developments 
of insanity were studied in connection with the functions 
of the nervous system and the brain, the better they were 
understood, and the more rational and correct views pre- 
vailed. In this way comparisons could be instituted be- 
tween insanity and other diseases. If the various diseases 
of the body arose from violating the laws that govern the 
healthy action of the system, thereby causing an unhealthy, 
abnormal state of certain organs, — then, if the healthy 
action of the brain were disturbed or affected, it might, on 
the same principle, cause mental derangement. 

The more closely mental phenomena are studied, as 
connected with physical organization and laws, the better 
will they be understood. Within half a century great 
advances have been made in a better knowledge of the 
functions of the brain and the laws of disease ; and these 
lead to more rational and correct views of insanity. That 
the brain is the organ of the mind, seems now to be gen- 
erally admitted. When, therefore, this organ is in a nor- 
mal, healthy state, the operations of the mind are sane 
and rational ; but when the brain assumes a morbid and 



THE PREVENTION OF INSANITY. 1 73 

unhealthy condition, the mind is disturbed ; its manifesta- 
tions become unnatural and deranged. The first disturb- 
ance of the brain may be very slight ; so the first symp- 
toms of mental derangement may be. 

III. Prevention of Insanity. — In all the discussions on 
insanity found in reports, journals, and books, there is 
scarcely a reference to prevention till within a few years. 
The most decided statement that we have seen appeared 
in the seventeenth annual report of the Commissioners 
in Lunacy for Scotland. This is so much to the point 
that we are induced to make the following quotations : — 

"It is impossible to come to any other opinion than that 
insanity is to a large extent a preventable malady ; and it 
appears to us that it is in the direction of preventing its 
occurrence, and not through the creation of institutions 
for its treatment, that any sensible diminution can be ef- 
fected in its amount. Lunacy is always attended with 
some bodily defect or disorder, of which it may be regarded 
as one of the expressions or symptoms. 

"We must therefore attempt to prevent its occurrence 
in the same way as we attempt to prevent the occurrence 
of what are called ordinary bodily diseases ; and if it be 
admitted that to a large extent preventable diseases ex- 
ist among us in consequence of this ignorance of the peo- 
ple, it is clear that we can only convert the preventable 
into the prevented, by the removal of that ignorance 
through a sounder education. Men must be taught that it 
is their duty, and not merely their interest, to understand 
the laws of health, and to make them eventually the rule 
of their conduct. In short, we can only hope that pre- 
ventable insanity, like other preventable diseases, will be 
diminished in amount when the education of men is so con- 
ducted as to render them both intelligent and dutiful 
guardians of their own physical, intellectual, and moral 
health." 

No higher testimony on this subject could be quoted 
than that from the Lunacy Commissioners of Scotland. 
Several distinct points are here brought out: 1st, That 



174 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

insanity is a disease, and can be prevented as other dis- 
eases are ; 2d, For this purpose similar means must be 
used to those employed to prevent diseases generally; 3d, 
The public must be better educated and trained in respect 
to the laws of health ; and 4th, By this process only can 
we expect a diminution of the disease. Lunatic hospitals 
alone will never do it. 

IV. Sanitary Science. — What, then, has been done to 
prevent disease ? No regular or systematic movement of 
this kind was made till some twenty-five or thirty years 
ago. From careful investigations into the laws of physiol- 
ogy and pathology, together with observations in medical 
practice, the primary causes of disease became better un- 
derstood. It was found that many diseases originated in 
filth, bad air, impure water, foul gases, poison from decay- 
ing animal and vegetable matter, etc. It was found, more- 
over, that the spread and fatality of certain diseases could 
be very much controlled by isolation, by disinfectants, and 
by a resort to sanitary laws. In carrying on this move- 
ment it became necessary to employ agents, to enlist legis- 
lation in enacting laws, and in establishing boards of 
health. In this way a powerful agency — sanitary science 
— has been brought into exercise, and under new legisla- 
tion State Medicine has been introduced, the leading ob- 
ject of which is to prevent disease. 

The more the laws of health and life are studied, the 
greater interest will people take in this class of subjects. 
In this way they will find out what are the causes of dis- 
ease, and what are the laws that govern them, and that it 
is for their interest to observe and obey these laws ; also, 
with this study, people will learn the advantages of a sound 
constitution — that such an organization is more free from 
weakness and disease, and that in a healthy body the men- 
tal faculties seldom become deranged. Now, let insanity 
in all its various forms be brought to the test of sanitary 



THE PREVENTION OF INSANITY. 1 75 

science. It will be found that all its manifestations result 
from the violation of the principles of this science. 

V. Insanity a Disease. — One of the most marked evi- 
dences of the progress in the knowledge of insanity is that 
its primary causes are traced more and more directly to the 
body. Says the late Sir James Coxe, than whom there 
can be no higher authority : — 

" Insanity is a disease of ignorance, — ignorance of the 
human organism and the laws that regulate it ; and the 
only way to check its growth is by a general diffusion of a 
knowledge of these laws, and the use of all those means 
necessary for the preservation of good health. Insanity 
originates in some form of disease, in a deterioration of 
the body rather than in an exclusive affection of the ner- 
vous system. The six leading factors are dissipation in 
various forms, over-work, meager fare, lack of ventilation, 
and neglect of moral culture." 

In these few words we have much truth expressed. If 
the preservation of good health checks the growth of in- 
sanity, let the principles of sanitary science be cultivated 
more and more, and be brought to apply in every possible 
way for improving the health of the people. Just so far 
as it does this, it perfects the human organization and re- 
moves or moderates the primary or predisposing causes of 
insanity. Let these sanitary inquiries be applied to the 
brain, and the laws that regulate the mind. Let special 
inquiries be made in regard to those particular weaknesses, 
tendencies, or diseases, which are most likely to affect the 
brain. It is well understood that complaints involving the 
nervous system are more apt to disturb the mind. There 
is one thought in the paragraph quoted which should be 
emphasized — that ignorance of human organization is 
one of the most fruitful sources of insanity. 

As a means to promote health of the body and sanity of 
the mind, it is important, then, that a knowledge of physi- 
ology should be diffused more widely. 



I76 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. m 

It should be made a regular study in the family, in the 
school, and in all the higher institutions of learning. In 
the study of physical organization, we learn one fact of 
vital importance, that sustains a most intimate relation to 
the prevention of mental disease. It is this : there are 
differences in physical constitution, certain individuals 
and families being far more subject to diseases of the body 
and the brain than others. We find persons and families 
who scarcely ever suffer in body or mind, and this exemp- 
tion may extend through several generations ; on the other 
hand, we find families whose members are subject to nearly 
all kinds of diseases and mental disturbances. 

VI. Hereditary Influences. — No fact connected with 
insanity is more firmly established than that it largely 
originates directly from inherited tendencies; and, if we 
include weaknesses, imperfections, and diseases arising 
from the same source, it may be found that more than half 
the insanity of the present day can be traced directly 
or indirectly back to hereditary sources. By careful study 
and observation it is not difficult to discover the physical 
differences and hereditary tendencies in the families here 
described. 

Let it be understood, more and more, that disease and 
insanity come mainly from inherited causes; let young 
men and women become thoroughly acquainted with such 
facts, and it must lead to greater carefulness in forming 
matrimonial alliances. 

When the community is generally informed on this sub- 
ject, inquiries will at once be made as to the health, the 
constitution, and the inherited tendencies of candidates 
for marriage. Such inquiries are already made in a quiet 
way, and they must increase in the very nature of things. 

In the prevention of disease and insanity, then, heredity 
has a powerful influence. 

VII. Causes of Insanity. — In the last quotation from 



THE PREVENTION OF INSANITY. 177 

Sir James Coxe, is a summary of the primary causes of 
insanity, from one who had made the subject a special 
study for over twenty years. Says Sir James, the leading 
factors are " dissipation in its various forms, over-work, 
meager fare, lack of ventilation, and neglect of moral 
culture." It will be seen that each one of these covers a 
great deal of ground. Passing by the last point — neglect 
of moral culture — the other four constitute the chief 
sources of disease of all kinds, some of which terminate 
in mental derangement. But nearly all these great agen- 
cies, productive of so much disease of body and mind, are 
subject to human control, and can be more or less checked, 
if not entirely prevented. 

The first-named, dissipation, is a fruitful source of in- 
sanity. This may consist in drinking habits, in the use of 
tobacco and opiates, or in the abuse of the sexual organs 
by licentiousness and solitary vice. These evils are all 
the results of voluntary acts, the work of a free agent ; 
and so they can be prevented. 

Over-work of body or mind not infrequently brings on 
mental derangement. 

Meager fare and bad air are evils which multitudes of 
poor people can not always escape. Neglect of moral 
culture is an evil directly connected with the choice of 
individuals and the state of public morals. It is a sin or 
an evil which can be corrected, wherever the fault may 
be, and there certainly can be no necessity or justification 
for any neglect. Dr. Henry Maudsley, the distinguished 
foreign alienist, speaks on this point as follows : — 

" It is to the perfecting of mankind by the thorough 
application of a true system of education that we must 
look for the development of the knowledge and the power 
of self-restraint, which shall enable them not only to pro- 
tect themselves from much insanity in one generation, but 
to check the propagation of it from generation to gener- 



I78 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

ation. Unhappily, we are not yet agreed as to what 
should be the true aim and character of education." 

Doctor Maudsley, here speaking of " perfecting man- 
kind," says that it can not be done till we have a " true system 
of education." The only way it can be done is through the 
body and the brain, and to do it we must also have some 
standard before us, some guiding principle to aid us. As 
to the "propagation of insanity" by hereditary influences : 
how can we understand the laws of inheritance unless we 
have some standard in physiology ? When the laws of 
this science are fully understood, it will be found that the 
most powerful agencies for preventing insanity lie in this 
direction. 

Again : It is well understood that the most favorable 
time to cure insanity is in its first stages ; on this account, 
it is constantly urged that all insane persons, just as soon 
as any marked symptoms of the disease appear, should at 
once be sent to a lunatic hospital. This counsel has 
generally prevailed in acute and violent cases, but in the 
milder forms of the disease the friends frequently object 
and delay. It is a great step to take ; there are certain 
forms of law which must be complied with ; then, the 
dread of its effects on the patient, the trouble attending 
the removal, and the anxiety about the situation and treat- 
ment of the patient in the hospital, etc., — all these things 
cause delay, sometimes for weeks and months, and may 
prevent the patient from going till the acute stages of the 
disease are passed. The complaint is often made by 
superintendents that large numbers are sent to the hos- 
pital who can not be cured because they come too late. 
This is given as one of the reasons why the rate of cures 
is so small ; for, taking all ' admitted into our hospitals, 
only about forty per cent., on an average, actually recover. 

VIII. The Medical Profession and Insanity. — It is 
unfortunate that more than one-half of all the insane 



THE PREVENTION OF INSANITY. 1 79 

availing themselves of the advantages of a hospital for 
cure, must settle down into a chronic form of this disease, 
with very little chance of ever being cured. Now, sup- 
pose the members of the medical profession were so well 
acquainted with the diseases of the nervous system and 
the brain that they could detect the first symptoms of dis- 
turbed or deranged states of the mind ; they could then 
treat them understandingly, and in many instances suc- 
cessfully. 

As things now are, physicians in regular practice 
do not take much responsibility in such cases, seldom 
prescribe for them, and seem quite willing they should be 
transferred to a lunatic hospital. This course is unfortu- 
nate for all parties; certainly for the prevention of the 
disease. Medical students, while preparing for the pro- 
fession, should be educated to understand the diseases of 
the brain, as well as of the heart and the lungs ; should 
have such a general knowledge of insanity (especially of 
its early stages) that they could not only detect its first 
symptoms, but, from knowing personally the peculiar 
organization and diseases of the individual and the family, 
they should so skillfully and easily manage the patient as 
in many cases to prevent confirmed insanity. 

In this way large numbers might be prevented from 
becoming permanently insane. 

Let us see what superintendents themselves say on this 
subject. One who has been superintendent for many 
years of the largest and oldest state hospital makes this 
statement : " Lunatic hospitals do not prevent insanity, 
because they do not, by the intercourse of their officers 
with society at large, by their published reports, and 
by their general relations to the public, seek to enlighten 
the people on the subject of insanity, its predisposing 
causes, its hereditary tendencies, its relation to intemper- 
ance, poverty, and crime ; and therefore they do not im- 



l80 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

prove the community in this respect, except in removing 
from its care some of its greatest burdens." 

Says another expert, who was long a superintendent of 
one of the largest hospitals in this state : "The more we 
see of mental disease in its various forms, the more are 
we convinced that the study of its prevention is infinitely 
more important than even the study of its cure ; and that 
the dissemination of more correct views of the true way 
of living, and a more rigid observance of the laws of 
health and Nature, would greatly diminish its frequency." 

Says the superintendent of another hospital in his re- 
port : " For the treatment of insane persons we could 
wish some practice more encouraging in its remedial 
effects might be devised. As now administered, asylums 
for such unfortunates afford little more than a place where 
they may be isolated from society, kindly treated, and a 
watchful oversight maintained to prevent them from com- 
mitting injury upon themselves or their attendants." 

Let the same course be pursued in reference to prevent- 
ing insanity that has been employed to suppress other 
diseases. Ascertain the causes, and diffuse information. 
This may be acomplished in a variety of ways : by en- 
listing the press, through books and journals, by family 
and educational training, by legislation, and by associated 
action. 



Vital Statistics. 



'TT'HE term vital statistics is very comprehensive in its 
meaning. In a limited sense it may apply to the 
history and life of an individual, and in a larger sense, to 
the subject of population, with all its changes. There is 
a more common use in its application to those events in 
life, under the heads of births, marriages, and deaths. 
The first act in Great Britain creating such a department, 
passed Parliament in 1838, and its reports have been con- 
tinued annually since. The first department of the kind 
established in this country, was made by the Massachu- 
setts Legislature in 1842. 

The registration of births, marriages, and deaths affords 
valuable materials not only for personal history, but for 
improvement in society. So important are the mere date 
and place of birth and death regarded, that they con- 
stitute almost the only memorials placed upon the casket 
at burial, or upon the tablet which marks, the spot where 
the body finally rests. The preservation of precise facts 
connected with birth, marriage, and death — continued for 
many years — furnish the data for establishing most im- 
portant principles bearing upon health and life. Thus the 
average age of man in different countries is found, whence 
are deduced the tables for life insurance. Thus, too, the 
salubrity of different localities or regions of country, the 
prevalence of particular diseases in different places, the 
effect of different pursuits or occupations upon health and 
life, are ascertained. 



l82 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

The collection of the leading items respecting birth, 
marriage, and death — especially of the latter — constitute 
the first steps in sanitary improvement and legislation. 
Such materials furnish the data for analyses and com- 
parisons of one nation or people with another, in respect 
to the laws of health and life. The more exact and com- 
plete and the longer continued these collections are, the 
greater their value and usefulness. 

Such registration or collection of facts is indispensable 
not only as a basis to initiate sanitary reforms, but to en- 
able Boards of Health to prosecute their work success- 
fully. Hence it should be a primary object in every 
community or state to gather up these statistics carefully, 
and preserve them in some convenient and permanent 
form, where a good use can be made of them. 

An important element in vital statistics is the question 
of increase or decrease of population, and what are the 
causes. The matter of birth and death enters largely into 
the inquiry, and thus the whole subject of registration, in 
all its bearings, must be taken into the account. It is 
found that we can not make a proper application of the 
facts gathered by registration, except as based upon popu- 
lation, and then the changes, both in number and 
character, of this population must be considered. For 
illustration : the birth-rate in one race or class of people 
may be much larger than in another ; so there may be 
also a marked difference in the death-rate. Then there 
may be constant changes going on among a people by 
emigration or immigration, which must be carefully scan- 
ned before reaching reliable conclusions. Thus several 
distinct points are involved in the discussion. 

Formerly these reports in Massachusetts divided the 
population into two divisions, foreign and American. 
Changes by increase or decrease could be easily traced. 
It was understood, then, to be by descent or nationality. 



VITAL STATISTICS. 1 83 

But for quite a number of years the returns have been 
made by nativity or place of birth. Thus the registration 
report of Massachusetts for 1886 is as follows : Whole 
number of births, 50,788 ; both parents native-born, 
19,531; both foreign-born, 20,758; native-born father 
and foreign-born mother, 4,518; foreign-born father and 
native-born mother, 4,781 ; and not stated, 1,200. Thus 
exact lines can not be drawn, as the classes are mixed. 

The two classes registered, native and foreign-born, are 
composed almost wholly of foreign descent and make 
9,359 births. These, added to the 20,758, make 30,117 of 
this class. But a large number of those reported 
"native," 19,531 belong to the same class, as their 
parents were of foreign descent. No exact estimate of 
this number can be made, though it must be quite large, 
and is constantly increasing. In Rhode Island the reports 
are made differently under the head of parentage. 

A census was taken in Massachusetts, 1875, in which 
special pains were taken to obtain a variety of items re- 
specting population, such as the relative number of births 
of American and foreign ; the size of families ; the na- 
tivities and ages of mothers ; the number and age of 
children belonging to each nationality; the conjugal con- 
dition of women, etc. Says the compiler of the census : 

"The object was to ascertain the relative fecundity of 
women of different nationalities, and to settle, as far as 
Massachusetts is concerned, the question which continu- 
ally arises concerning the growth of our native population 
as compared with that of our foreign-born. The tables 
are full of instruction. 

"The total number of women in this state who are or 
have been married is 398,759, and the number who at this 
date have become mothers is 309,520. Of this number, 
190,311, or 61 + per cent., are native-born mothers, and 
119,209, or 38 + per cent., are foreign-born mothers; 



184 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

that is, while the proportion stands 74 -f- native and 
25+ per cent - foreign, the mothers are 61+ per cent, 
native and 38 -f- per cent, foreign. Of the whole number, 
— 631,131 — of native-born females, 190,311, or 30 -f- per 
cent., have become mothers ; while of 222,825, tne whole 
number of foreign-born females, 119,209, or 53 +per cent., 
have become mothers. Of the 89,239 married women in 
the state having no children, if the line could be drawn 
showing what proportion belonged to each class, there are 
good reasons to believe that by far the large majority 
would be found in the purely American. The average 
number of births to native-born is given as 3.52 ; to foreign 
mothers, 4.91 ; Irish, 5.03 ; Canadian, 4.78 ; English, 4.40, 
and German, 4.23." 

But all these figures from the Massachusetts census are 
calculated to mislead us in our comparison, inasmuch as 
they are based upon birth-place, and not on parentage. If 
all that are actually foreign in descent, here classed as 
American simply because born in the United States, could 
be eliminated, it would change materially these figures, 
diminishing the per cent., under the head American, and 
increasing that of the foreign. 

Let us take another point of view — viz., the size of the 
family. The census shows the number of births to each 
married woman, commencing with the native-born mothers, 
a large number of whom have only one, two, and three, 
while the foreign-born hold out, in a far greater propor- 
tion, having four, five, six, seven, and extending to ten or 
twelve and occasionally upwards. The tables reporting 
these facts in two columns, side by side, exhibit quite a 
striking contrast. 

From the first settlement of New England the birth- 
rate was high, and large additions were made every year 
to its numbers. This continued for several generations; 
parish records and genealogical histories showed large 



VITAL STATISTICS. 1 85 

families up to the commencement of the present century. 
But the birth-rate and the size of the family have been 
steadily falling off for two generations. In fact, the 
birth- and death-rates have been approximating nearer and 
nearer to each other in the strictly New England stock, 
so that the actual increase in numbers from this source, 
in many localities, is comparatively small. If the theories 
of Malthus on population, instead of being based upon the 
birth-rate in the earlier history of New England, 
which doubled the population once in twenty-five years, 
were applied to the present or last generation, it would 
make a surprising difference ; in fact, it would find no 
support. 

In this steadily declining birth-rate for nearly a hundred 
years among our New England people, in the present 
marked differences of fecundity between the American 
and foreign, and the striking changes taking place in our 
population, some important questions are involved. These 
changes do not come by accident or chance, but must 
have causes — causes adequate and substantial, though 
radical and becoming somewhat permanent. Instead of 
being satisfied with this abnormal state of things, let us 
address ourselves earnestly to finding out these causes, 
inquiring what laws in vital statistics have been observed, 
and what violated. 

The causes usually assigned for decline in birth-rate 
and decrease in population, such as want of food and em- 
ployment, bad climate, disturbances in government, wars, 
epidemics, earthquakes, etc., have not here occurred, and 
therefore can not be applied. The causes, upon a superfi- 
cial survey, are not apparent, are not easily found — but 
still there must be causes. We venture to express the 
opinion, that those causes arise mainly from certain 
changes and differences in physical organization ; that 
there is a normal standard of physiology, which establishes 
13 



I 86 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

a general law of propagation, and that deviations from this 
standard affect not only the conditions, but what are con- 
sidered the laws of life and health ; and, if these devia- 
tions are marked in certain directions, they affect the birth- 
rate and, of course, the increase of population. 

Thus, in comparing the fertility of the different races, 
living side by side, and surrounded by the same conditions 
of climate, food, government, etc., what makes the differ- 
ence in birth-rate? Why should the birth-rate of New 
Englanders fall off so much in the course of a hundred 
years ? Why should it now be only one-half that of the 
Irish, the English, the German, the Canadian-French? 
The facts presented in the census and registration 
reports, demonstrate beyond controversy that there is 
near this difference. It should be borne in mind that this 
comparison is based not upon population as a whole, where 
the conditions may be unequal — that is, the American 
having a disproportionate number of aged and single per- 
sons, while the foreign is composed largely of persons from 
fifteen to forty-five years of age — but the comparison is 
made upon strictly the married women of both classes ; not 
for one or two years, but for a series of years; not upon 
one or two families, but upon a large number of families. 
The comparison is based upon people living not in cities 
or towns alone, but upon all classes of married women liv- 
ing scattered in both cities and towns. It would seem as 
though no fairer or more correct analyses and comparisons 
could be instituted. 

In the investigation of such questions as those which 
have here been raised, something more is involved than 
the gratification of an idle curiosity, or the support of a 
favorite theory. Thoughtful minds are inquiring what is 
the cause of these changes, and what do they portend? 
What laws in vital statistics have been observed, and what 
violated ? What lessons do they teach in respect to in- 



VITAL STATISTICS. 1 87 

crease or decrease of population ? May there not be some 
problems to be solved, some new principles in science to 
be evolved ? Time and further researches will determine. 
For wherever or whenever a civilized and enlightened peo- 
ple fail to obtain a proper increase in numbers, from 
generation to generation, it shows something wrong and 
unhealthy in their domestic relations, something defective 
in the type of their civilization and Christianity, some vio- 
lation of the important laws of health, life, and human in- 
crease. 



The Law of Human Increase.* 



TT is almost one hundred years since the attention of 
T. R. Malthus was first called to the subject of popu- 
lation and its changes. As his views have had more influ- 
ence than those of any other writer, it is well to notice 
briefly what they were. His leading principle is, that 
"population, when unchecked, increases in a geometrical 
ratio, while subsistence increases in an arithmetical ratio." 
He held that " population is necessarily limited by the 
means of subsistence," and " invariably increases where 
those means increase, unless prevented by some very pow- 
erful and obvious check." He divides these checks into 
two classes, the positive and the preventive. Among the 
former are wars, famine, diseases of all kinds, unhealthy 
occupations, extreme poverty, great cities, etc. ; and in the 
latter class are abstinence from marriage and sexual inter- 
course, from considerations of prudence. The last class 
come more directly under the control of human agency. 

The next writer of any note was Thomas Doubleday, 
who published in 1840 a work with this title: "The true 
law of population shown to be connected with the food of 
the people." The term "true law " was undoubtedly in- 
troduced in opposition to the doctrine of Malthus. 

Doubleday attempted to demonstrate that "wherever 
a species or genus is endangered, a corresponding effort 
is invariably made by Nature for this preservation and con- 
tinuance, by an increase of fecundity or fertility ; and 

* From the Popular Science Monthly, November, 1882. 



THE LAW OF HUMAN INCREASE. l8o, 

that this especially takes place whenever such danger 
arises from a diminution of proper nourishment," and that 
consequently "the deplethoric state is favorable to fer- 
tility." Thus, "there is in all societies a constant in- 
crease going on among that portion of it which is the 
class worst supplied with food — in short, among the 
poorest." 

The April number of the Westminster Review for 
1852 contained an elaborate essay by Herbert Spencer, 
introducing a "New Theory of Population," deduced from 
the general law of animal fertility. He "maintained that 
an antagonism exists between individualism and repro- 
duction ; that matter in its lowest forms — for instance, of 
vegetables — possesses a stronger power of increase than 
in all higher forms ; that the capacity of reproduction in 
animals is in an inverse ratio to their individuation; that 
the ability to obtain individual life and that of multipli- 
cation vary in the same manner also, and that this ability 
is measured by the development of nervous system." 

Fourier and some French writers have advanced the 
idea that "just in proportion as individuals become ad- 
vanced in civilization, in the same proportion the race in- 
clines to run out " ; but whether this depends upon some 
change in physiological laws, or upon the influence of ex- 
ternal agents, we are not informed. In establishing any 
law or general principle, it is highly important to under- 
stand distinctly what this principle is and its basis. 
During the present century, the above-named persons are 
almost the only writers who have proposed any thing like 
a general law or principle to guide the growth and changes 
of population. 

The principle laid down by Herbert Spencer is the only 
one based strictly upon physiology. All the discussions 
and views of Malthus and Doubleday depend mainly upon 
food, climate, government, state of society, epidemics, war, 



190 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

etc. They make the leading factors, the primary agents 
in all these changes, outside and in a great measure in- 
dependent of the body. It would seem more consistent 
with common sense and all natural phenomena, that the 
law which governs the existence, growth, and changes of 
a living being should have its basis and development in 
that same organization. The truth of this principle is 
strikingly illustrated in the changes that have taken place 
in domestic animals. The human system can not be made 
an exception to a universal principle. 

This law of increase or propagation — the most im- 
portant of all laws — must, in the very nature of things, 
be inherent in the body; must be incorporated into its 
very existence, though in its operations it may be affected 
by extraneous causes and influences. However powerful 
may be the effect of climate, food, and other external 
agents upon the application or working of this law, 
whether to impede, thwart, or modify its operation, the 
law must exist, .we believe, in the body itself, and in a 
great measure control it. The various changes to which 
the human body is subjected, can not happen by chance 
or accident ; neither can the causes be dissimilar or con- 
tradictory in different nations and races ; neither can they 
radically change or vary, from one generation to another. 
Universality and unchangeableness must characterize such 
a law. The reason why correct principles have not been 
brought to bear more directly upon the growth and 
changes of population is, that the principles of physiology 
were not formerly understood. The science was scarcely 
known at the time when Malthus and Doubleday pub- 
lished their works, that is, the principles of the science 
in many of its most practical applications. In fact, it 
may be safely said that some of these principles, as far as 
their application is concerned, are still in their infancy. 
One of the most interesting and important of these ap- 



THE LAW OF HUMAN INCREASE. I9I 

plications will be found, we believe, in establishing a 
general law of human increase. 

After years of observation and reflection, we have been 
led to believe that there is such a law, based on physi- 
ology, and propose to submit some of the facts and argu- 
ments upon which this belief is based. As the subject is 
so vast and complicated, a large volume would be required 
to discuss it properly ; we can present here only a few 
points or topics, by way of argument and illustration. In 
order to present a clear and connected view in a short 
paper, few quotations or references will be given. 

What, then, is the briefest definition that can be given 
of this law ? It consists in the perfectionism of structure 
ajid harmony of function ; or, in other words, that every 
organ in the body should be perfect in its structure, and 
that each should perform its legitimate function in har- 
mony with all others. 

The nearer this ideal standard is reached, the more com- 
pletely the law of propagation will be carried out. Such 
a basis harmonizes with the fundamental or general laws 
of Nature, as we find that they are based upon the highest 
or most perfect development of her works. Any other 
basis or lower standard would reflect upon the Creator of 
all things, and interfere with the harmony and order which 
exist in Nature's operations. Thus, in reference to every 
organ in the human body, there is such a thing as a 
normal, perfect structure, and, wherever this exists, they 
constitute a perfect model or standard of the whole system. 
All diseases interfere at once with the operations of this 
law, especially those that are considered hereditary. This 
class of diseases change with each generation, and some- 
times become so intensified that they impair the vitality 
and strength of the system to such an extent as to prevent 
propagation. There is a class of diseases or weakness, 
described under the head of " sterility," "barrenness," 



192 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

and "impotence," from which strong evidence may be de- 
duced in proof of a general law of increase. 

There is a law in physiology, favorable to this theory, 
described by Doctor Carpenter thus: "There is a cer- 
tain antagonism between the nutritive and reproductive 
functions, the one being exercised at the expense of the 
other. The reproductive apparatus derives the mate- 
rials of its operations through the nutritive system and its 
functions. If, therefore, it is in a state of. excessive ac- 
tivity, it will necessarily draw off from the individual fabric 
some portion of aliment destined for its maintenance. 
It may be universally observed that, when the nutritive 
functions are particularly active in supporting the individ- 
ual, the reproductive system is undeveloped, and vice 
versa!' 

Let, therefore, on this principle, any class of organs or 
any parts of the body be unduly or very much exercised, 
they require the more nutrition to support them, thereby 
withdrawing what should go to the other organs. In ac- 
cordance with this physiological law, if any class of organs 
become predominant in their development, they conflict 
with this great law of increase. In other words, if the 
organization is carried by successive generations to an ex- 
treme, that is, to a high nervous temperament — a pre- 
dominance of the brain and nervous system — or, on the 
other hand, to a lymphatic temperament — a predomi- 
nance of the mere animal nature — it operates unfavorably 
upon the increase of progeny. Accordingly, in the 
highest states of refinement, culture, and civilization of 
a people, the tendency has always been to run out in off- 
spring; while, on the other hand, all tribes and races sunk 
in the lowest stages of barbarism, and controlled prin- 
cipally by their animal nature, do not abound in offspring, 
and in the course of time they tend also to run out. The 
truth of both these statements is confirmed by history. 



THE LAW OF HUMAN INCREASE. I93 

The same general fact has been observed among all the 
abnormal classes, such as idiots, cretins, the insane, the 
blind, the deaf-and-dumb, and to some extent with ex- 
treme or abnormal organizations, such as are excessively 
corpulent or spare, as well as of unnatural size, either 
very large or extremely small. 

It would seem that Nature herself determines to put an 
end to organizations that are monstrous, that are defec- 
tive and abnormal or unnatural or imperfect in any re- 
spect. All history, we believe, proves that such organi- 
zations are not prolific, and then umber of this class born 
into the world, reaching an advanced age, is comparatively 
not large. Such facts would indicate that there must be 
a general law of propagation that aims at a higher or 
more perfect standard. 

If this principle is applied to distinct classes in society, 
some striking illustrations may be obtained. Take the 
families belonging to the nobility, the aristocracy, or the 
most select circles, where by inheritance, refinement, and 
culture the nervous temperament has become very pre- 
dominant : it is found that such families do not increase 
from generation to generation, and not unfrequently, in 
time they become extinct. 

A similar result has also followed the intermarriage of 
relatives, from the fact that the same weakness or predis- 
positions are intensified by this alliance. On the other 
hand, if these relatives have healthy, well-balanced or- 
ganizations — even if they are cousins — they will abound 
with healthy offspring, and the stock may improve, and 
not deteriorate, from the mere fact of relationship. 

Again: If we take those families and races which for 
several generations have steadily increased most, we shall 
find that, as a whole, they possess a remarkably healthy, 
well-balanced organization. Illustrations of this type we 
shall find abound most among the middle or working classes 



194 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

of the German, the English, the Scotch, the Irish, and the 
Americans. The strictly native New Englanders are, in 
some respects, an exception and require a more particular 
notice. 

During the last century the colonists of New Eng- 
land, made up mostly of English stock, multiplied rapidly. 
So great was their natural increase that they doubled 
in numbers in less than twenty-five years. Malthus 
regarded them as the best specimens, in this respect, of 
any people or race, and based upon facts from this source 
his great principle of population. But a most surprising 
change has taken place within one hundred years, with this 
same people. From records carefully kept, it appears that 
the average number of children to each family has de- 
creased with every generation ; that they commenced with 
large families — averaging eight or nine — but it is now 
doubtful whether the average will exceed three children a 
family, scarcely enough to keep the original stock good in 
numbers. This change has occurred in the same places, 
with the same people, having the same climate and plenty 
of food. Making allowance for the "arts of destruction 
and prevention" which may exist to some extent, we do 
not see how this great decrease in birth-rate can be ac- 
counted for, except by some change in physical organ- 
ization — and this fact is true of the women as well as 
of the men. But a great change in this respect has taken 
place. 

The men are not so strong and vigorous as their 
grandfathers and ancestors, and the women have deteri- 
orated physically in a surprising degree. A majority of 
them have a predominance of nerve-tissue, with weak 
muscles and digestive organs. The most marked change 
in this one hundred years, in organization, is the loss of 
balance or harmony in the organs, and especially in women 
it is far more striking. They have been diverging more and 



THE LAW OF HUMAN INCREASE. I95 

more from that normal standard upon which the law of 
propagation is based. 

There is only one other people or race where there has 
been such a natural decrease in numbers — that is, the 
Sandwich-Islanders. Once they were a strong and robust 
people. In 1830, when the first census was taken — 
which was ten years after the American missionaries com- 
menced their labors — the population was 130,000, but by 
the last census there were only about 40,000, one-third as 
many as fifty years ago. In the mean time religious in- 
stitutions have been introduced, education has become 
general, and the family as an institution has been estab- 
lished. All the elements of a Christian civilization have 
been thoroughly established, but still the population has 
been steadily decreasing at the rate of about one thousand 
each year. How can this be explained ? It can not be from 
the want of food, nor a well-regulated society, nor change 
in climate, nor want of a good government; there have 
been no wars, no famine, and only two or three epidemics, 
which were quite limited. The cause of this loss of popu- 
lation can not arise from any external condition or agents, 
but from some law growing out of and governing the physi- 
cal system. It is well known that certain diseases, result- 
ing from licentiousness and intemperance, have been 
brought by foreigners to these islands, causing a physical 
degeneracy in the people. So powerful and far-reaching 
are the effects of these diseases that neither the family, 
nor education, nor Christianity, can eradicate them. The 
law of propagation has been violated to such an extent 
that it threatens the extinction of that people. 

The laws of hereditary descent afford strong evidence 
in favor of some general law of propagation. The fact 
that "like begets like," subject to certain variations and 
conditions, can not be called in question. The union of 
two agents, possessing similar and dissimilar qualities, 



I96 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

constitutes an important condition to which this law of 
propagation is subject. While it may be difficult to point 
out, in all cases, the exact results of hereditary influences, 
still it has been demonstrated on a large scale that, in the 
aggregate, there was the most unquestionable evidence of 
such agency, and that it was minute and extensive, and 
continued for successive generations. Now the same 
evidence that proves the existence of hereditary agency, 
implies that there is somewhere a general law, of which 
each and every part of this agency is part and parcel ; and 
no one thing will throw so much light upon this whole 
subject of inheritance as the recognition of a general law 
of propagation, based upon a perfect standard in Nature. 
Without such acknowledgment, all these hereditary agen- 
cies are an enigma. When this branch of physiology be- 
comes thoroughly understood, hereditary influences will 
more readily be traced back to their primary sources, as 
well as to the secondary causes which serve at times to 
change and modify them. In this case, far more intelligent 
and efficient means will be employed to improve the race- 
Again : Powerful arguments in favor of this theory of 
increase may be deduced from woman's organization. It 
is a settled fact, that the primary organism of her nature is 
the production of children — that by this course her aver- 
age health is better, and the mean duration of life is 
longer. Hence there must be one type or standard of or- 
ganization better adapted for this purpose than all others. 
We maintain that the perfect structure of her whole body 
and the harmony of function in every organ constitute this 
normal standard of increase. The truth of this assertion, 
we believe, can be demonstrated from four distinct points 
— all most intimately connected with human increase: 1, 
In case of pregnancy a woman with this organization suf- 
fers the least. It is well known that this change fre- 
quently brings on many complaints, and sometimes serious 



THE LAW OF HUMAN INCREASE. IO,/ 

diseases. The more the body or certain organs deviate 
from the normal standard, the greater the disturbance and 
suffering. 2, At the time of confinement, or in the process 
of delivery, a woman with this organization suffers less — 
passes through all its stages safer, and recovers from its 
effects quicker and better — than those having a dif- 
ferent organization. 3, In the matter of nursing offspring, 
which constitutes a very important part of child-bearing, 
this healthy, well-balanced organization js very necessary. 
The fact that only about one-half of the New England 
women can properly nurse their offspring is very signifi- 
cant of some change of organization — that there is a 
failure in the development of the mammary glands and the 
requisite power of the digestive organs— -and this in- 
capacity for nursing is constantly increasing. And, in the 
fourth place, the difference in the physical character of 
offspring is very significant. This is determined in a 
great measure by that of the mother. The more healthy 
and perfect her organization, and the better the balance of 
all her organs, the sounder and the more perfect will be 
the development of her offspring. The health and life of 
the child demand it. 

This theory of human increase derives strong evidence 
from an analogous law in the animal and vegetable king- 
doms. It is well known that great improvements have 
been made within the present century in domestic animals, 
and this, too, by the application of physiological laws. 
To such an extent have the results of observation and 
experiment been here carried, that this process of change 
and improvement has been reduced almost to a science. 
The terms here used — "pure blood," "thorough-bred," 
"pedigree," "breeding-in-and-in," and "cross-breeding" 
— may all be explained by two great leading principles. 
One is a general law of propagation, based upon a perfect 
standard ; and the other is the law of inheritance, subject 



I98 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

to certain conditions. The three first-named terms have 
originated more from an observance or carrying out of the 
first law — breeding from the best stock; but the two 
latter terms depend more upon the effects of inheritance. 
The results of the experiments in improving domestic 
stock indicate clearly that there must be some settled 
rules or laws in the process; and, if so, is there not some 
general law governing and controlling all others ? A 
similar law of propagation exists in vegetable physiology. 
It is a fact well attested by gardeners that, in order to 
produce flowers and fruit, the soil must not be too rich 
nor too poor ; if the plant or tree grows too luxuriantly, 
its branches or roots must be pruned ; while, on the other 
hand, if unthrifty, it must receive better culture, and its 
roots be enriched, before it will become fruitful. It is well 
understood by gardeners that, in order to raise the best 
fruit and vegetables, the fairest and best-looking seed 
must be selected. So in setting out plants and trees the 
best-looking and well-balanced specimens are always 
selected. Other facts and illustrations might be cited 
from this source, to prove that some general law governs 
in the growth and changes of organic life. 

Again : Arguments in favor of a general law of increase 
may be deduced from three other important points in physi- 
ology. Where do we find the highest measure of or the 
most perfect health ? It is in this same normal standard 
of physiology and the nearest approaches to it. In some 
respects the human body resembles a complicated machine: 
the more perfect the structure, and the more nicely adjust- 
ed are all the parts of the machinery, the less likely is any 
one part to get out of order. And when one part, how- 
ever small it may be, gives out or breaks, it at once in- 
volves the other parts, all of which must more or less 
suffer. Thus the individual, the family, the people, who 
possess by nature the soundest and best-balanced organ- 



THE LAW OF HUMAN INCREASE. 1 99 

izations, will have, other things being equal, the greatest 
aggregate amount of health. Not only this, but they will 
secure the longest lives. This same standard of physi- 
ology, then, affords the material upon which the law of 
longevity is based. A careful examination of the organi- 
zation of all those persons who reach a great age, we be- 
lieve, will demonstrate that they naturally possessed a re- 
markably and evenly balanced constitution. 

Again : Whenever physical standards of human excel- 
lence or models of the best specimens of the race have 
been sought or adduced, they have exhibited this har- 
monious development. The Apollo Belvedere and the 
Venus de' Medici represent a beautiful, symmetrical or- 
ganization ; and, the nearer all parts of the body approxi- 
mate to this standard, the greater is the attraction and the 
more beautiful the form. If there is a form or type of 
organization in the human species more beautiful than any 
other, is not this mode the standard? We believe the 
Creator of all things has established in physiology such a 
standard of taste and beauty, and that this same normal 
standard, upon which the law of increase is based, comprises 
that beautiful form or standard of taste for the human 
body which, it has been admitted, exists, but is nowhere 
well defined. 

Again: Arguments in favor of this theory of increase may 
be deduced from the writings of Charles Darwin. Two of 
his leading doctrines are " natural selection " and the "law 
of variability." The former doctrine maybe defined thus : 
There is an inherent principle in Nature, amid all its laws 
and changes, for betterment, for improvement. The same 
result has been found out from long experience, — that the 
character of domestic animals can be improved by select- 
ing the most desirable qualities and by avoiding all that 
conflict with these. This principle is most strikingly 
manifested in all organic beings, in their constant "struggle 



200 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

for existence," and is happily expressed in the phrase often 
used by some writers : the " survival of the fittest." We 
believe this same principle not only harmonizes with, but 
is nothing more nor less than, a great general law of in- 
crease, based upon the perfectionism of all organization 
and harmony of function ; and what are denominated "laws 
of variation " may be explained by the laws of hereditary 
descent. When we take into consideration the fact that 
the true law of propagation is based upon a perfect stand- 
ard in Nature, all changes or deviations from that standard 
or model result from what are properly called laws of in- 
heritance. With this explanation it will be seen at once 
that a wide and varied field is laid open for their operations, 
depending not only on the body itself, but upon external 
agencies and conditions. But the question arises, Why 
this " natural selection," why this " struggle for existence," 
and why the " survival of the fittest " ? Do they not 
arise from a universal law in Nature, which gives to those 
possessing this organization in the highest degree the 
advantage over others ? 

What is this inherent principle in Nature, ever aspiring for 
betterment or improvement ? What are the secret forces 
everywhere predisposing in this direction? Is there some 
general, universal law incorporated into organic life which 
favors such qualities? As this law is primarily based upon 
a higher or more perfect standard, all its inherent or pre- 
disposing forces have an upward or improving tendency. 
Thus, all who are so fortunate as to possess an organization 
of higher grade or better than others have certain advan- 
tages. In this way the doctrine of natural selection may 
be readily understood, and the survival of the fittest. 

This general law, applicable to all organic beings, resem- 
bles in some respects that principle found in the human 
system called vis medicatrix. It was early discovered by 
physicians that, in case any part or organ in the body be- 



THE LAW OF HUMAN INCREASE. 201 

came injured or diseased there was a surprising recup- 
erative power in Nature of healing or curing. All the 
sound parts of the body seem to conspire together to help 
the part or organ affected. This influence to assist seems 
spontaneous and always healthful. So it is with this law 
of propagation — it is not only conservative, but improv- 
ing to all possessing more than an average share of the 
inherent forces of this law. 

Connected with this law of population there are several 
points worthy of careful consideration. While it possesses 
a sure and permanent foundation, there are a flexibility, 
an elasticity, which are self-regulating, and display a divine 
wisdom and power. Such is the nature of this law that, 
in all its varied operations, it does not interfere with the 
choice and free agency of man. When the character of this 
law is fully understood, what on the one hand are the 
penalties attached to the violation of any part of it, and, 
on the other hand, what are the rewards for its observance, 
it presents to man the strongest possible motives for his own 
improvement and the advancement of human happiness 
generally. If man is created a free moral agent, account- 
able for all his acts, the law providing for the propagating 
of the species should certainly be of such a character that 
he can clearly understand its nature and sanctions. Accord- 
ing to those theories on population where its increase and 
changes depend mainly upon external agents, man is 
made, in a great measure, a mere passive agent, having 
but little control or responsibility in all those important 
matters. 

If the theory here advanced is the true law of human 
increase, it is not a mere theory or an abstract general 
principle, but is capable of almost endless applications, far 
more than can be enumerated. It will enable us to under- 
stand far better the nature of man, his duties and respon- 
sibilities in relation to himself, to the family, to society at 

14 



202 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

large, and particularly to his Maker. It will furnish us a 
guide or a great principle by which certain practices and 
fashions in society, certain modes of education, systems of 
morals, acts of legislation, etc., can be tested. It will 
throw new light upon what constitutes the true grounds of 
human progress and the real sources of an advancing 
civilization. 



Heredity: A Source of Pauperism. 



TN the second report of this board,* it was stated that 
one of the sources of pauperism is an " inherited or- 
ganic imperfection of the body, a vitiated constitution, or, 
in other words, poor stock." Since that statement was 
made, our conviction of its truth has been confirmed more 
and more by careful inspection and inquiry for fourteen 
years among the inmates of the State institutions. While 
many of these persons, by indolent and vicious habits, 
have contributed to their own degradation, still there were 
predisposing causes in their constitutions which had a 
powerful influence in the same direction. Many inherited 
feeble bodies and weak minds, with vicious propensities. 
They commenced life amid circumstances most unfavor- 
able for developing the better qualities of their nature. 
In attempting, therefore, to ascertain every thing that 
has formerly contributed to make these persons paupers, 
criminals, or lunatics, we must not only take into account 
their own agency, but must consider well the nature and 
amount of capital which they had to start with in life. 

No fact in science is better established than that there 
is a most intimate mental as well as physical relation be- 
tween the parent and the child, — between each genera- 
tion and the succeeding one. This relation has been well 
expressed in the proverbs, " What is bred in the bone can 
not be whipped out of the flesh," and " Like begets like." 

* From the Fourteenth Annual Report of the Board of State Charities, 
which was prepared by the writer as chairman. 



204 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Heredity has, we believe, a far greater agency in pro- 
ducing social evils than has generally been supposed. 
This influence extends, by transmission, not only to the 
form of the body and the features of the countenance, 
but to every part of the system, — to the quality of the 
blood, — especially to those vital organs which give 
stamina of constitution and beget mental predisposi- 
tions. Whatever agencies, therefore, are calculated to 
injure the body or deprave the mind, to incapacitate an 
individual for self-support, or to make him a corrupter 
of others, should certainly be exposed by the guard- 
ians of public charity. Among the most mischievous 
agents operating injuriously upon the human system is 
alcohol ; and whether we consider the extent of its abuse, 
in various forms, or the terrible effects which it produces, 
it stands foremost as a cause of pauperism and other 
evils. It poisons the blood, and produces a diseased or 
morbid condition of almost every organ of the body. It 
affects the brain, impairs the intellect, perverts the moral 
sentiments and the will, and increases unduly the activity 
and strength of the worst propensities. It prostitutes the 
higher to the lower nature of man, changing what should 
be the true aims and objects of life to those of low ani- 
mal nature. 

Closely connected with the alcohol poison is another, 
which, though not so manifest in its effects, has a most 
destructive influence upon human welfare. This poison 
arises from habits of licentiousness, and its evil effects do 
not cease with the living, but extend through successive 
generations. 

The syphilitic poison operates on the human system in 
so covert a manner, and in such a variety of ways, that it 
is sometimes found difficult to trace out all the effects ; 
but the more thoroughly the pathological and morbid con- 
ditions of the body are brought to light by modern science, 



heredity: a source of pauperism. 205 

the more extensively are discovered the mischiefs which 
this poison has wrought. If the amount of vice, disease, 
and pauperism produced from this source alone could be 
made known, it would surprise people. In some respects 
this poison is more destructive of health and life than 
the poison of alcohol. 

But there are other modes of abusing the reproductive 
organs which injure most seriously both body and mind. 
A careful inspection of the inmates of our almshouses 
and hospitals will show a vast amount of suffering from 
this abuse. It is the hereditary effects of these evils that 
make them especially significant in the production of pau- 
perism and insanity. To aggravate the matter, their 
effects are communicated in an intensified form, from 
generation to generation, and it is very difficult to check 
or eradicate them either by human means or through the 
recuperative powers of Nature. 

Besides these two poisons, there are other agencies 
that injure the body and enfeeble the mind, such as nar- 
cotics, stimulants, over-medication, etc. Then come 
irregular habits, want of proper nutrition, and a train of 
diseases which either destroy their victims or make them 
helpless and dependent. When the physical system is 
impaired or broken down, the mental faculties frequently 
become enfeebled and depraved, so that not only poverty 
and temporary dependence, but habitual indolence and 
shiftlessness also, ensue. Such a state of things makes 
paupers, who, by natural association, form social and 
domestic relations with each other. The more such per- 
sons become associated together, either in families or 
communities, the more unfavorable is the influence of 
one upon another, the whole tendency of things being to 
sink them lower and lower in the social scale. Worst of 
all, whatever offspring these persons have are sure to 
be impregnated with vice, pauperism, and crime, by the 



206 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

law of inheritance as well as by the habit of association. 
A careful inquiry into the origin, history, and character of 
the inmates of our public institutions will abundantly 
prove and illustrate these statements. 

If idleness, improvidence, intemperance, and licentious- 
ness are prime factors in the production of pauperism, 
these have their germs or springs in physical organization. 
The desire, the craving, the predisposition, for such vices, 
were transmitted from parent to child. A poor physical 
development throughout, or a predominance of the animal 
nature, characterized undoubtedly the ancestry for two or 
three generations. A feeble, sickly body may have been 
inherited impregnated with disease, it may be scrofula 
or some other poison. The diseases thus generated are of 
the worst type, the most difficult to cure, and the most 
destructive to industry and self-support. 

If this prevention of disease, or improvement in hered- 
itary agencies, could be extended to the defective classes, 
— to the idiotic, and feeble-minded, to the deaf-and-dumb, 
to the blind, and the insane, — it would make a notable 
difference in the amount of pauperism. The cause of our 
finding so large a number of paupers in these defective 
classes is violated physical laws, either on the part of the 
individuals themselves or their ancestors. While we can 
not determine just what proportion of these evils are of 
hereditary origin, nor point out exactly the line of causa- 
tion in their production, there is no question but that a 
great deal can be done, by proper means, towards prevent- 
ing them. 

A striking illustration of hereditary influences was 
brought to light recently in the state of New York, by 
an official investigation on this subject. Among the re- 
sults of this investigation, the history of a remarkable 
family is given, under the name "The Jukes," extending 
back six generations, where, from one bad woman, nearly 



HEREDITY I A SOURCE OF PAUPERISM. 207 

a thousand persons, by birth, relationship, and association, 
became paupers or criminals. This history shows the 
great power and influence of heredity and early associa- 
tion, in the production of pauperism and crime, more 
forcibly than ever before. 

It demonstrates that the seeds, or primary causes, of 
these evils are connected with the great laws that govern 
human life farther back than has been generally supposed. 
This family history brings up also the relations between 
"heredity and environment," and suggests means or 
agencies which may be employed to prevent or check 
the miseries originating from these two sources. The 
more this whole subject is investigated, the more evident 
it becomes that, in order to check the increase of pau- 
perism, crime, and insanity, the remedy must be applied 
to their primary sources. It will be found, too, that these 
are, to a great extent, under the control of human agency. 

A careful examination of all the facts gathered on this 
subject shows that, in addition to the hereditary influence, 
ignorance, idleness, intemperance, and prostitution are 
prime factors that enter into the complex product of 
pauperism and crime. The hereditary agency precedes 
these personal factors, and predisposes to their activity 
and control. It is evident that the germs or predisposi- 
tions originate in physical organization and development. 
These secondary agencies would not be called out, or 
would have but little influence, if the right kind of material 
for their operation had not been provided. 



Improvement in Domestic Stock. 



"TT^HIS subject is introduced to show that the same gen- 
eral principles apply here that pertain to the human 
species. It is true improvements have been made without 
recognizing these principles, but by a long course of experi- 
ment and observation the same results have been reached. 
It is over one hundred years since these experiments 
started in Great Britain, but they have improved so much 
as to be reduced almost to a science. In this country 
there has not been the same interest or pains taken, 
neither has there been the same success. 

While the general law of propagation, based upon 
anatomy and physiology — or perfectionism of structure 
and harmony of function — holds the same in domestic 
animals, there exists a wide difference in the operation of 
the laws of inheritance. Some of these laws apply, the 
same as in the human species, but with others there is, 
at the same time, a very wide difference. There are three 
very important points of distinction. These are radical, 
fundamental, and fixed. In applying this law of propaga- 
tion, the existence and the influence of these points of 
difference must be taken into account. 

The first distinction is reason and intelligence, or the 
intellectual and moral nature of man, — that all the facul- 
ties which distinguish him from the animal have a most 
powerful influence upon this law of inheritance. 

The second difference is the marriage institution. 
Without resorting to Revelation at all for a divine sanction 
of this institution, we believe its necessity can be proved 
upon physiological laws alone, — that the health, happi- 



IMPROVEMENT IN DOMESTIC STOCK. 200, 

ness, and highest welfare of the race require just such 
an institution ; in fact, that the human species as a 
whole can not be perpetuated in its highest type with- 
out the marriage relation, and that the law of inheritance 
must act in harmony with its sanctions. 

The third distinction is in the objects of creation. Man 
is a free moral agent, accountable directly to his Creator 
for all his powers and his acts ; but the animal was 
created with a very different nature, and for different pur- 
poses. The laws that govern his organization can be 
more easily applied and directed, especially by human 
agency. They are not only more simple and less compli- 
cated, but can be brought to bear more directly and with 
more immediate results. This law of heritage is here, in 
a great measure, not only under the control of human 
agency, but what may be called the physiological influence 
is small compared with what it is in the human species ; 
and then the external agents, such as food, climate, and 
exercise, can here be directed and applied far more aptly 
and successfully. 

It seems to be a wise provision that this law, in case of 
domestic animals, can be controlled very much by human 
agency. In this way, and by this means only, can great 
improvements be made. By a correct knowledge of this 
law, and the hereditary influences growing out of it, these 
improvements can be carried on far more successfully and 
intelligently. Experiment and observation have done a 
great work here, but knowledge clear and definite, based 
upon law, will furnish a far better guide and stimulus. 
Guided by these principles, the science of breeding will be 
clothed with new interest, will be pursued in a more intel- 
ligent manner, and with a greater certainty of securing the 
desired objects. Under such auspices, may we not expect 
that the improvement of domestic animals will be more 
rapid, sure, and permanent than it has ever hitherto been ? 



Physical Degeneracy; 



,f T T HE term degeneracy implies a decline in qualities 
which were once possessed, and which pertain to 
a higher state of being or a more normal standard. This 
decline may take place slowly or rapidly, and be transient 
or permanent in its character. The nature of the changes 
and results depends of course upon the subject involved. 
It is proposed at the present time to point out certain 
changes taking place in the physical systems of large 
numbers of our population that show a well-marked de- 
generacy. 

There are several points from which the lines of this 
declination may take their origin or start It may be 
from a perfect standard or organization with which man 
was first created, representing the soundest and highest 
development of all the organs in the human body, in a 
well-balanced state. It may also refer to the physical 
systems of those races and nations most advanced in civ- 
ilization, or to the constitutions of the first settlers in this 
country, together with our immediate ancestors. 

It is not our purpose to enter at all upon the domain of 
anthropology or ethnology, but mainly confine our obser- 
vations to certain changes taking place particularly in and 
among people who have their origin and nativity in New 
England. Neither will it be possible to notice all the 
causes and agencies operating here to change physical 

* From the Psychological Journal of Medicine (Appleton's), N. Y., Octo- 
ber, 1869. 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 211 

organization, much less their results ; the field is too 
large, the subject is too complicated, and the effects are 
too far-reaching. And as to the numerous and varied 
changes in morals and in mental developments, reference 
can be made to them only as affected by the body. The 
more the laws of the ' physical system are examined and 
studied, the greater will be seen the importance attached 
to them, in their influence upon mental improvement and 
moral development. 

The causes operating to produce these changes of or- 
ganization are very numerous — some external to the body, 
and some internal. So multiplied and complex are they, 
that it is very difficult to describe them in detail or draw 
distinct lines between them. Climate has always been 
regarded as one of the most powerful agents in changing 
the physical system — especially is this the case when 
applied to different individuals or races in removing from 
one residence to another ; but, where the same people 
continue to live in the same locality for several genera- 
tions, the change occasioned by climate can not be suffi- 
cient to make any appreciable difference. Thus in New 
England, though there prevails an impression that some 
change has occurred here in the seasons, if not in the cli- 
mate, since the settlement of the country, it is so slight 
that not much account can be made of this alone. It is 
true, however, that if the constitution has become sensi- 
bly impaired by other causes, and weakened in particular 
organs, the same climate may have a more marked influ- 
ence upon it ; but, even then, it could not be considered 
as a leading agent. 

Among the external agencies may be mentioned the 
effect of changes in private and public institutions, in the 
style of dress and state of society, in the kinds and modes 
of doing business, in the changes of soil, of vegetation, 
of air, of dwellings, in methods of education, habits of 



212 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

domestic life, etc., etc. ; but then, many of these external 
agencies can not be considered separately from the in- 
ternal, which may be summed up under three general 
heads, viz., exercise in all its diversified forms ; foods, in- 
cluding drinks, medicine, and whatever enters into the 
system ; and the last, though by no means the least, the 
effects growing out of the laws of hereditary descent. 
While many of the causes depend upon circumstances 
and surroundings, frequently beyond the choice and 
control of individuals, still some of the most efficient, 
such as exercise, food, and personal habits, come within 
the power of every individual, provided he has sufficient 
intelligence. 

To describe in detail all the agencies, and the precise 
way in which they affect the human system, does not 
come within the range of our present inquiry, so much as 
what are the direct effects of their influence upon the 
constitution, what actual changes they produce in the 
body, and what will be the probable result. Neither will 
it be possible to examine minutely into all these changes, 
or describe just how they are brought about, but simply 
notice those more marked and important. With few 
exceptions, these changes in the system occur so gradu- 
ally, so quietly, and so imperceptibly, that they are 
not noticed at the time, and are scarcely felt by the indi- 
vidual himself. 

Some of these changes, it should be stated, are brought 
about principally by the exercise of the mental faculties. 
That the body, whether in a healthy or diseased state, has 
a direct and powerful influence upon mental manifesta- 
tions, is admitted ; while, on the other hand, the exercise 
of the mind, including the animal propensities, the moral 
sentiments and intellectual faculties in all their diversi- 
fied operations, has a great effect upon both the develop- 
ment and the functions of the physical system. 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 213 

The brain itself, as the organ of the mind, is subject to 
many changes, and, as the center of the nervous system 
— which ramifies every organic tissue — exercises a 
powerful influence over every part of the body. And in 
proportion as the nervous temperament becomes more and 
more predominant, with a large active brain, the same 
proportion will the influence of mental exercise have over 
physical organization. As this predominance of the nerv- 
ous system is relatively increasing every year — becoming 
a marked feature in the type of our present civilization — 
the exercise of the mind and the nerves is destined to have 
more and more influence over the body, whether in a 
normal or a morbid condition. By a constant, intense, 
and increasing activity of mind, those organs that con- 
tribute most to its wants will not only be developed more 
and more by the general law of exercise, but also by 
sympathy and suffering, to which this mental strain 
peculiarly exposes the nervous system, while, at the same 
time, all other parts of the body are by this means power- 
fully affected. 

The question might here naturally arise, how, or by 
what process or law, is physical organization changed ? 
To this we answer, that such changes are principally 
affected — 

1. By the natural law of growth by exercise, nutrition, 
air, light, etc. 

2. By positive violation of those laws which Nature 
has established for the growth and preservation of the 
system. 

3. By simple neglect or want of the use of all those 
means necessary for the healthy growth and development 
of every organ in the body. 

4. By disease in all its various forms and terrible 
results. 

5. By the gradual but steady operations of the laws of 



214 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

hereditary descent, working for good or ill, according as 
they are obeyed or thwarted. 

This last cause is very fruitful in results, inasmuch as it 
includes all the others ; and, where two or three gener- 
ations are taken into account, the changes that may be 
effected will be equally surprising in their nature and 
their extent. It is not our purpose to consider these 
causes now, or in their regular order, as they will come 
under review, more or less, in discussing the various 
changes that have taken place in the physical system ; but, 
before proceeding to this part of the subject, it may be 
well to have in mind some definite standard of physiology 
to which reference can occasionally be made. In all the 
works of Nature or Art, it is a great advantage to have set 
before us a perfect standard, or the highest development 
of the class or kind under consideration, in order to in- 
institute proper comparisons, or make careful discrimina- 
tion in the changes taking place. 

When man first came from the hands of his Maker, we 
have reason to believe he was created with a perfect or- 
ganization. Every organ was perfect in itself — without 
spot or blemish ; without excess or defect ; without weak- 
ness or disease. Then, there was a perfect harmony or 
balance existing between all the organs throughout the 
system. This perfection of organism constitutes in human 
physiology a standard upon which certain general principles 
or laws have their basis — their foundation. It affords the 
only perfect standard of beauty, of health, of strength, of 
happiness, of longevity, and of increase ; or, in other 
words, it provides the materials whereby all these objects 
may be secured in their greatest possible measure, or very 
highest degree of development. 

For the sake of illustration and convenience in reference, 
we will here divide all the organs of the system into four 
distinct classes, called Temperaments. The word tern- 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 215 

perament is sometimes used to denote a mixture of qualities, 
including mental as well as physical ; but, as here used, it 
is intended to apply only to different compartments of the 
body. The first division, including the brain, the spinal 
column, and nerves of motion and sensation, is called the 
nervous temperament ; second, the heart, the lungs, and 
all the blood-vessels in the system, called the sanguine 
temperament ; third, the organs in the abdomen, the 
stomach, bowels, liver, and absorbents, called bilious or 
lymphatic temperament ; and fourth, muscles, bones, liga- 
ments, constituting the motive apparatus of the system, 
called the muscular temperament. 

But, unfortunately, this physiological standard, repre- 
sented by a complete development of every organ in the 
body, and perfect harmony in all their functions, is no- 
where to be found. No nation, or race, or tribe, or people 
upon the globe, can at the present day show perfect living 
examples, containing all the organs in a perfectly well- 
balanced state. They are only approximations to this 
standard. 

The human constitution has been constantly changing, 
in every age and with all classes of people. The causes 
are to be found partly within the body, and partly in exter- 
nal agencies and influences, and are sometimes observed 
to vary materially with the same individual or generation. 
Slight changes in the organization do not affect much the 
physical or mental character of a people ; but, when a 
certain class of organs, or, in other words, one of the tem- 
peraments, becomes very predominant, it has a most 
marked and, generally, unfavorable effect. 

Moreover, if only a single individual in the community 
here and there was found with an organism thus im- 
perfectly developed or badly predisposed to disease, its 
hereditary effects would not be very perceptible ; but, 
when large numbers, or a majority in a community, are 



2l6 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

found so constituted, not more than one or two generations 
can possibly pass before such effects are generally observed 
and become well known. 

If the standard of organization here described is strictly 
the normal state of man, such as he had when created and 
would now have in his best estate, all weaknesses, all 
diseases, and all imperfections of the body are abnormal, 
— are deviations from this standard. 

It is particularly in this imperfect, abnormal, diseased 
state of the system, that the laws of hereditary descent 
come into more active operation and exert the most in- 
fluence. The changes effected from this source are beyond 
calculation. And when the tendencies are in the down- 
ward direction, it would seem as though their forces were 
far more active and become intensified. 

With these preliminary remarks, we proceed to consider 
more directly and definitely the changes in human organ- 
ization that indicate a decline. No evidence of much 
weight can be deduced from any exact statistics in figures 
relative to man's physical development. No extensive or 
reliable collection of facts, touching the height, weight, 
strength, and other properties of the body, was ever 
gathered, that would throw much light upon this subject. 
But connected with our late war, Dr. B. A. Gould, under 
direction of the Sanitary Commission, caused examinations 
on these points to be made upon over a million of soldiers. 

In the law of growth, Quetelet and other European 
authorities have been inclined to consider that the maxi- 
mum stature is not reached in our country till the age of 
thirty, and even then it varies with different classes of 
men. It was found by these examinations that the native 
soldiers of Tennessee and Kentucky were the tallest in 
stature ; next came those from Michigan, Wisconsin, and 
Iowa and Illinois — many of these being born in New 
England ; and the tallest soldiers from the Eastern states 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 217 

were from Vermont and Maine. The question is here 
raised, What particular agency or influences favor most 
the growth of the body in stature ? and, after examining 
and comparing the various theories upon this subject, 
Doctor Gould comes to this conclusion, namely : " That all 
the influences here considered - — climate, nationality, 
comfort, elevation — may contribute in some measure to 
affect the stature is more than probable ; that both an- 
cestral and local influences are recognizable is certain. 
And although we can not succeed in determining what is 
the chief agent, it may not be without value that we fur- 
nish evidence of what it is not." One object in making 
this quotation is to suggest what this " chief agent" may 
be, viz., is it not the exercise of certain muscles and 
bones, while in a state of growth, and living in an uneven, 
hilly country, requiring much use of the legs and spine ? 

While our American soldiers took the lead in stature, 
the examinations showed that the representatives of other 
races surpassed our men in weight, strength, and certain 
other properties touching the dimensions of the body. As 
to physical stamina for enduring long marches, the hard- 
ships of camp-life, and other exposures incident to the 
war, it was not easy to make any satisfactory compari- 
sons between the different classes. 

In making examinations with reference to the draft at 
the opening of the war, it was a matter of surprise to 
surgeons what a large number of men in the community 
were found whom, by reasons of infirmities or diseases, 
they were obliged to exempt from the draft. If exact in- 
formation could be obtained as to just what proportion of 
men, at the present day, are physically disqualified for 
military service, the result, we believe, would surprise the 
public. 

This brings us to consider a most important change in 
the organization of our people, viz., gradual loss of muscle 

15 



2l8 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

and increase of the nervous temperament. Its leading 
tendency is to diminish the stamina and vitality of the 
constitution, as well as increase and intensify unduly the 
action of the brain and nervous system. While this change, 
at first thought, and from certain points of view, may 
seem an improvement in the estimation of some persons, 
yet in the end, when carried out to the extent which now 
seems probable, we apprehend that it will prove seri- 
ous in its results. Perhaps the truth of this statement 
can not be demonstrated by the figures of arithmetic or by 
exact statistics, yet we think such an amount of facts and 
arguments, in variety, pertinency, and force, can be pre- 
sented in its favor, as to establish it beyond reasonable 
doubt. 

In the first place, the increasing migration of our people 
from the country to the city is decidedly unfavorable to 
physical stamina and life. Within forty or fifty years 
there has been a marked change in this respect, and every 
year witnesses its increase more and more. 

The desire of raising themselves in the world and of 
improving their circumstances is constantly impelling 
large numbers in the rural districts to remove to the city 
or large town, where wages are higher, the advantages of 
society greater, and the conditions of life more attractive. 
With many the leading motive for change seems to be to 
get rid of manual labor and hardships incident to country 
life ; and obtain a livelihood in the city, by means of 
lighter employment or rather by their " wits" than by hard 
work. The introduction of new mechanical and manufact- 
uring business, together with the widely-extending domain 
of trade, is continually encouraging this migration. To 
such an extent has this change already occurred in popu- 
lation, that almost one-half of it in the older states is now 
found in cities and large towns, and there is reason to be- 
lieve that the proportion is steadily on the increase. Now 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 2IO, 

no one truth in vital statistics is better established than the 
fact that city life tends to reduce the physical energies of 
the body and shorten human life. The close confinement 
in-door, the breathing of vitiated air, the frequent use of 
unwholesome water, the increased habits of intemperance 
and licentiousness found in cities, have a pernicious 
effect upon the human constitution, by multiplying its in- 
firmities and its maladies. It has truly been said that an 
exclusively city population would certainly run out if it 
were not continually replenished from the country. 

In the second place, the very general giving up of farm- 
work and the more laborious employments, on the part of 
our New England people, is very unfavorable to muscular 
development. It is a well-known fact that a very few of 
our young men are willing to follow, practically, agricul- 
tural pursuits, and every year witnesses a less and less 
number disposed to learn or follow the more laborious 
trades, such as the mason, the carpenter, the millwright, 
the wheelwright, etc. It is reported that the superinten- 
dents or master-workmen of such trades can not now get 
apprentices at all to learn the business. 

One of the ostensible objects at the present day is, 
How can we avoid manual labor or hard work ? It is in 
part this that has led to the invention of labor-saving 
machines, to substitute the use of water-, steam- and horse- 
power, for human agency, and devise various means or 
contrivances for conveyance and travel. What a won- 
derful contrast between the work now performed here and 
that of fifty or a hundred years ago ! What a vast quantity 
of rocks were once gathered up or dug out of the ground in 
New England, and what an immense amount of stone-wall 
was laid ! What an untold amount of hard work was per- 
formed in clearing the forests, in subduing the ground, in 
cultivating the soil, and erecting substantial buildings ! 
Such labor made strong muscles and sound constitutions. 



220 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

It is now generally admitted that neither the men nor 
the women of the present day have the physical vigor and 
stamina that their parents and grand-parents possessed. 
They can not begin to do the work, endure the hardships, 
or bear the exposures of their ancestors. The constitution 
has changed. The strong and well-developed muscles, the 
large and stalwart frame, the stout and compact form, the 
abundant supply of pure arterial blood — all of which 
characterized the first settlers of this country — are now 
seldom found. 

These facts are patent to almost any observer, but 
marked in the eye of the physiologist, and rendered still 
more striking to the physician when the change in the 
present type and character of the diseases is considered 
— so different from what they once were. While it may 
be difficult to define, in every case, just what changes in 
disease have occurred, it is admitted by the highest medical 
authorities that important changes have taken place, and 
that the treatment once required and found successful can 
not now be applied. 

From the testimony of aged physicians as well as 
from the description given by different writers, it is evident 
that there were, in the case of our ancestors, relatively 
much more acute disease, far greater violence in its attacks, 
and a decided higher grade of inflammation, than exist at 
the present day. Then, they required a great amount of 
venesection, and the use of powerful drugs, neither of 
which with us is often required or very well borne. We 
have, moreover, a class of diseases, arising from scrofulous 
complaints, from general debility, and a predominance 
of the nervous system, which once were almost unknown. 
Formerly, cases of dyspepsia, anaemia, and neuralgia — each 
of which is now the source of much disease — were seldom 
found, but now are very common. 

From a careful examination of the nomenclature of the 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 221 

diseases in the reports of deaths in Massachusetts for the last 
forty years — the period since this registration was estab- 
lished — we find a marked change has relatively taken place 
in reference to different diseases. As some changes in their 
classification have been introduced during this time, it is 
difficult to institute exact comparisons as to the frequency 
of particular diseases ; but one thing is certain : that there 
has been a great increase of those pertaining to the brain 
and the nervous system. In the opinion of some physicians 
nervous diseases have more than doubled. Cases of in- 
flammation and congestion of the brain, of apoplexy, of 
paralysis, epilepsy, convulsions, etc., are far more common 
now than formerly. Once apoplexy and paralysis were 
thought to be confined almost exclusively to persons from 
sixty to eighty years of age, but now they frequently occur 
from forty to sixty ; and convulsions, with other diseases 
of the brain, have increased surprisingly, in the case of 
children especially. 

In the third place, this loss of muscle and increase of 
the nervous temperament, together with a change in the 
type and character of diseases, applies with far greater force 
to woman than to man. It is in her case more marked, 
more radical, and at the same time more injurious in its 
results. Within forty or fifty years a great change has 
taken place in the early training of girls, as well as in the 
domestic habits of women. Once a large majority of the 
girls of our American population were taught early to 
understand and perform housework, which, combined with 
considerable out-door exercise, served to develop strong and 
healthy physical frames. From the age of six to sixteen, 
of the girls of that period, probably not more than half 
their time, on an average was devoted to school education 
or intellectual pursuits. In fact, this would apply to only 
the higher and wealthier classes, whereas the great ma- 
jority of girls of that age had much less schooling than that. 



222 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

It seems to be the order of Nature that the physical 
system is best developed and strengthened when the per- 
son is young — when all the tissues of the body are in a 
natural state of growth — and especially is this so in the 
case of the muscles which constitute the moving power of 
the whole system. Now no kind of exercise or work what- 
ever is so well calculated to improve the constitution and 
health of females as domestic labor. By its lightness, 
repetition, and variety, it is peculiarly adapted to call into 
wholesome exercise all the muscles and organs of the body, 
producing an exuberance of health, vigor of frame, power 
of endurance, and elasticity of spirits ; and to all these ad- 
vantages are to be added the best possible domestic hab- 
its, and a sure and enduring foundation for the highest 
moral and intellectual culture. 

But what a change has there been within a short time in 
the education of girls ! They are now very generally kept 
in school from the age of six to sixteen, with only short 
intermissions for rest and recreation. Very little atten- 
tion is paid to physical development and health. They 
grow up with muscles weak and soft, possessing but little 
strength and vitality. The brain, together with the ner- 
vous system, is kept continually upon a strain, producing 
often no doubt a brilliancy and precociousness of scholar- 
ship without the stamina of constitution to sustain it. 
Hence, many girls for the want of exercise and by too 
close application to studies, now early break down in health, 
or bring on weaknesses and diseases which disable them 
more or less through life. 

And just in proportion as this training of the muscles 
is neglected in youth, in the same proportion will it disin- 
cline them afterwards to perform house labor, as well as 
all other kinds of work which requires much exertion. At 
the same time there has grown up in a portion of the 
community a strange and pernicious sentiment or feel- 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 223 

ing that there is some degradation attached to domes- 
tic labor, so that nearly all of it is now performed by for- 
eign help. In consequence of this want of training or 
neglect of exercise, large numbers of our women do not 
possess that strength and firmness of muscle, that stam- 
ina and vitality of constitution, which are indispensable 
to sound and vigorous health. In fact, the natural law of 
growth and healthy development seems to have been re- 
versed. According to physiology, this is the natural 
order : first, the cellular tissue, then the muscular, the 
cartilaginous, the osseous, and the nervous ; and, inasmuch 
as the muscular is the moving power of all the other 
tissues, its proper exercise and development in childhood 
become all-important. Then the brain and nervous tissue 
come last in the order of growth, which should not be 
pushed prematurely at the expense of the others. Besides, 
it is allowed by physiologists that, in a normal state, about 
one-third of the blood should go to sustain the brain, and 
thus, in this way, one-third of the vitality of the system 
is consumed. It is well known that no kind of exercise 
uses up the vital energies or exhausts the system like that 
of brain work. 

Now, while all these tissues are in a growing state they 
constantly require a large amount of nutrition for growth, 
but, if this premature exercise of the brain demands more 
than its legitimate share of the nutrition, the whole sys- 
tem must suffer. The supply is not equal to the demand. 
Hence, the natural growth and development of the various 
tissues of the body are more or less checked, causing a 
want of vitality — a deficiency of good arterial blood. 
Then commences early in life a weakness, a feebleness 
which pervades the whole system, a peculiar paleness in- 
dicating a state of anaemia, while, at the same time, there 
is almost uniformly a mental activity, a nervous excitability 
and restlessness, entirely unhealthy and unnatural. 



224 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

In considering these changes and their significance or 
tendencies, two things should be borne in mind : I, These 
violations of law occur at a period the most critical in 
life, when certain important changes are expected in the 
female organization, and when the healthy efforts of Na- 
ture should have the greatest possible encouragement ; 2, 
The changes in the growth and organization of the female 
from the age of ten to fifteen determine in a great meas- 
ure her constitution and state of health in after-life. It is 
true, physical changes occur from the age of fifteen to 
twenty, and sometimes very important ones; but the leading 
forces that shape, direct, or modify these changes depend 
principally upon the agencies and influences operating on 
the system in previous years. It should also be borne in 
mind that the changes formed at this period become gen- 
erally^^, if not structural, and can not be easily altered. 

Connected with this want of muscle and vitality in wo- 
man, there are certain other conditions in her organization 
which indicate a decline. In consequence of neglect of 
physical exercise and want of vitality, there has arisen 
a general state of debility and anaemia, which is a fruit- 
ful source of disease. In proof and illustration of 
this fact, there has been called for, in the treatment of 
women, a most surprising increase of tonics, especially in 
the preparations of iron. It is thought, in the whole his- 
tory of the materia medica, there has nowhere been so 
great a change as in the increased variety and amount of 
the ferruginous preparations. While it may be impossible 
to estimate the exact amount of this increase, it is the 
opinion of some physicians in long practice, as well as 
druggists in extensive business, that this increase, in forty 
or fifty years, must be tenfold or more relatively for the 
same population. Besides the prescriptions of physicians, 
great quantities of iron are put up by druggists, and are 
found largely represented in patent medicines. These 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 225 

preparations of iron are used mostly in the treatment of 
female diseases or weaknesses. Once they were prescribed, 
after the run of a fever or an attack of some acute disease, 
when the system had been reduced and tonics were only 
temporarily required to improve the appetite and the blood ; 
but now, in almost all the ordinary complaints of women, 
iron, in some form, becomes an indispensable medicine ; 
in fact, in many cases they depend upon it from day 
to day, from week to week, the year in and year out, almost 
as much as upon their daily food. Its use has also become 
extensively necessary even in cases of children suffering 
from debility and anaemia, which would not have been re- 
quired if they had inherited organizations full of life and 
vitality, or had been rightly trained in physical exercises, 
and their systems properly nourished and strengthened. 

There is another practice which is having a deleteri- 
ous effect upon female health, and contributes largely 
towards the decline and weakening of her organization. 
We refer to the fashions of the day or the style of dress, 
which changes the form of the body, compresses the chest 
and abdomen, thereby preventing the proper expansion of 
the lungs, by which the blood is oxygenated ; it obstructs 
the natural action of the heart, the stomach, and the bowels, 
and depresses more or less all the internal organs, espe- 
cially those in the lower part of the pelvis, thus interfer- 
ing seriously with the great laws of reproduction. 

Again : Connected with this weak and relaxed state of 
the muscular tissue, and with the above-mentioned effects 
of fashion in dress, has sprung up a class of very grave 
complaints, which once were comparatively unknown in 
our country, and are somewhat peculiar to American 
women. We refer particularly to weaknesses, displace- 
ments, and diseases of organs located in the pelvis. Within 
twenty or thirty years there have been not only marked 
changes in the type and character of the diseases of 



226 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

females generally, but this class, comparatively new, has 
increased surprisingly. No one but a medical man, who 
has devoted special attention to this subject, can realize 
fully what are the nature and extent of this change, and 
what are the direful effects. These complaints have fre- 
quently been produced, have certainly been aggravated, 
and sometimes made incalculably worse, by the various 
means and expedients which the parties have resorted 
to, in order to interfere with or thwart the laws of 
population. It is not this class of complaints in them- 
selves, or in their effects upon the general health, 
that renders them so important, but the relations 
which they sustain to the marriage institution, and the 
laws of reproduction. While we can not here with pro- 
priety go into details, it may suffice to state that such are 
the nature and extent of these difficulties as to interfere 
radically with the great objects of the marriage relation, 
as well as of domestic life. To the thoughtful and dis- 
criminating mind this point of view affords the strongest 
possible evidence of decline in physical organization. 

There is another marked change going on in the female 
organization at the present day, which is very significant 
of something wrong. In the normal state, Nature 
made ample provision in the structure of the female for 
nursing her offspring. In order to furnish this nourish- 
ment pure in quality and abundant in quantity, she must 
possess a good development of the sanguine and lymphatic 
temperaments, together with vigorous and healthy digestive 
organs. Formerly such an organization was very generally 
possessed by American women, and they found but little 
difficulty in nursing their infants. It was only occasionally, 
in case of some defect in the organization, or where sick- 
ness of some kind had overtaken the mother, that it be- 
came necessary to resort to the wet-nurse or to feeding 
by hand. And the English, the Scotch, the Germans, the 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 227 

Canadian-French, and the Irish women now living in this 
country generally nurse their children ; the exceptions 
are rare. But how is it with our American women who 
become mothers ? To those who have never considered 
this subject, and even to medical men who have never 
carefully looked into it, the facts when correctly and fully 
presented will be surprising. It has been supposed by 
some that all or nearly all our American women could 
nurse their offspring just as well as not; that the dis- 
position only was wanting, and that they did not care to 
have the trouble or confinement necessarily attending it. 
But this is a great mistake. This very indifference or 
aversion shows something wrong in the organization as 
well as in the disposition ; if the physical system were all 
right, the mind and natural instincts would generally be 
right also. 

While there may be here and there cases of this kind, 
such an indisposition is not always found. It is a fact that 
large numbers of our women are anxious to nurse their 
offspring and make the attempt ; they persevere for a while 
— perhaps for weeks or months — and then fail. They find 
that their milk does not satisfy the child, or that it does 
not thrive, and they conclude there must be a deficiency in 
the quality of the nourishment. In many cases after re- 
peated trials, and finding no improvement either in the 
child or mother, it is decided to give up nursing entirely ; 
while others — depending partially upon nursing — resort 
to artificial feeding. There is still another class that can 
not nurse at all, having neither the organs nor nourish- 
ment requisite even to make a beginning. The proportion 
of mothers that have an abundance of good milk, and can 
thus support the child well till time of weaning, without 
any artificial help, is not large. It is the opinion of some 
medical men of long experience and careful observation, 
that not one-half of our New England women, particularly 



228 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

in the cities, can at the present day properly nurse their 
offspring. Why should there be this change ? 

Why should there be such a difference between the 
women of our times and their mothers or grandmothers ? 
Why should there be such a difference between our 
American women and those of foreign origin residing in 
the same locality, and surrounded by the same external 
influences ? The explanation is simple ; they have not 
the right kind of organization ; there is a want of proper 
development of the lymphatic and sanguine tempera- 
ments — a marked deficiency in the organs of nutrition 
and secretion. You can not draw water without good 
flowing springs. The brain and nervous system have for 
a long time made relatively too large demands upon the 
organs of digestion and assimilation, while the exercise 
and development of certain other tissues in the body have 
been neglected. That we have not misrepresented or 
overstated the extent of this defect existing in American 
women can be abundantly proved from the extensive sale 
of nursing-bottles. But let the reader — and, if he be a 
medical man, so much the better — cast his eye over the 
circle of his acquaintances among young mothers, and 
count up the number who nurse their offspring, then those 
who unite nursing with feeding, and then those who do 
not nurse at all, and he will be surprised to find how many 
will fall into the last two classes. If, as we maintain, this 
be owing to a decline in physical organization, what 
stronger proof can we have of the nature or extent of the 
evil ? It is doubtful whether any such change of organ- 
ization can be found in the history of any other people. 

But the defects of the system here described do not all 
arise from a merely negative source ; there are positive 
evils which can not be remedied by any artificial means. 
In consequence of the neglect of physical exercise and 
the continuous application to study, together with various 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 229 

other influences, large numbers of our American women 
have altogethar an undue predominance of the nervous 
temperament. If only here and there an individual were 
found with such an organization, not much harm com- 
paratively would result ; but, when a majority or nearly 
all have it, the evil becomes one of no small magnitude. 
While, in the estimation of some, it affords the most 
favorable conditions for the highest degree of intelligence, 
refinement, morality, and happiness of the individual, it 
does not harmonize so well with the laws of maternity 
and the interests of humanity. 

Besides the inherent defects in such an organization, 
in not making the necessary provisions for gestation 
and lactation, the natural instincts of woman in a pure love 
of offspring and domestic life become changed : the care 
and trouble of children are a burden ; society, books, 
fashion, and excitement generally are far more attractive. 
The anterior lobe of the brain has been exercised al- 
together too much at the expense of the posterior. If the 
law of human increase is based upon a perfectly sound and 
well-balanced constitution, represented by a uniform, 
equal development of all the temperaments, then either 
extreme must be unfavorable to the propagation of the 
species. Such we believe is the true physiological law, 
and will be found verified in the history of every race, 
nation, and people on the globe. In discussing the 
changes taking place in the organization of our people, 
the form and size of the body should not pass unnoticed. 
In the loss of muscle and increase of nerve-tissue, together 
with diminished vitality, we maintain that there must be a 
gradual change going on in the stature, the form, and size of 
the body. The outline or framework of the system is made 
up principally of certain bones, and the growth of these is 
insured, at a certain age, by proper exercise and nutri- 
tion under favorable influences. The differences of vari- 



23O PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

ous races and nations, as well as of individuals, in these 
respects, we think, can be explained in some measure by 
the application of this principle. The size and form of 
the body depend much also upon the proper development 
of the organs ranged under the lymphatic and sanguine 
temperaments. A predominance of the nervous system is 
seldom accompanied with a body of large size or structure, 
but is more generally found in persons of slender build 
and medium size. While changes in the stature, form, 
and size of people, as a whole, can not be determined at 
once, two or three generations can not pass without their 
becoming very perceptible. 

In a former place we referred to the portly forms, large 
size, stout build, and strong constitutions of our forefathers. 
The descriptions and portraits of our Puritan mothers 
represent them for successive generations as possessing 
well-developed bodies, and in many instances of large size. 
Such is the testimony of elderly people generally, and 
they comment particularly on the diminutive size and 
slender form of the women of the present day. Testi- 
mony similar to this has often been borne by foreign 
tourists visiting our country, especially in respect to our 
women. This change in the constitution is more im- 
portant as applied to them, on account of the laws of 
hereditary descent. While we may not be able to demon- 
strate in figures that such changes as are described 
above have actuallly taken place among our people, we 
do maintain that there are causes now operating and 
likely to continue, which, fifty years hence, will produce 
marked results in the height, weight, and other physical 
properties of the system. In fact, we submit whether 
there are not already positive indications in the changed 
features, forms, and dimensions of the persons now on 
the stage, that a decline in this respect has actually com- 
menced. 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 23 I 

There is another topic which may afford us an in- 
structive lesson, whether operating as cause or effect in 
the past, or at the present time. We have seen what a 
change has taken place in the disposition of men in respect 
to manual labor — that a strong disinclination prevails, 
especially among young men, to do farm-work, or to follow 
the more laborious of the mechanical trades, or any other 
kind of business requiring much hardship or exposure; 
and that, if possible, a greater change has occurred with 
women in respect to housework, as well as to all kinds of 
physical labor demanding great exertion or severe ex- 
ercise. This aversion to manual labor or hard work, while 
it extends to all classes, comes, seemingly, more from 
young people than from the middle-aged. Now what 
mean these complaints, if a decline in physical vigor and 
strength has not already commenced ? Besides, if such a 
course in respect to hard work is to be pursued by all our 
young people, what will be its effects ultimately upon 
their constitutions ? 

We come now to consider a different class of agents 
affecting the system, including food, drinks, medicines, 
etc., etc. And perhaps we can not introduce them better 
than by quoting the testimony of a distinguished foreign 
medical writer, who, after considerable observation and 
study, sums up the "vices" of the Americans under the 
following heads : — 

1. An inordinate passion for riches. 

2. Overwork of body and mind in the pursuit of busi- 
ness. 

3. Undue hurry and excitement in all the affairs of life. 

4. Intemperance in eating, drinking, and smoking. 

5. A general disregard of the true laws of life and 
health. 

Why our people should be so indifferent about human 
life, as such, or in the preservation of health, it is difficult 



232 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

to explain. Nevertheless, it is a fact. This indifference 
is strikingly manifest in their neglecting to take sea- 
sonable and proper care of themselves when ill ; in 
trusting their lives, when sick, in the hands of empirics 
and charlatans ; in taking large quantities of patent 
medicine, the composition of which they are entirely 
ignorant of; in swallowing compound mixtures highly 
recommended indeed, but by whom they know not ; and 
the same trait is still more strikingly exhibited in a per- 
sistent, self-willed determination to continue certain habits 
or practices, which, from repeated warnings and expostula- 
tions, they know will hasten, if not cause, their death. 

This disregard of life is also manifest in the general in- 
difference of the public in cases frequently occurring, where 
one or more persons are drowned ; in cases of suicide, or 
death by accident ; and in those railroad disasters or steam- 
boat explosions where human life is sacrificed on a still 
larger scale. How slight the shock, and how soon forgotten ! 
Then, in the late war, what a sacrifice of life ! What 
multitudes either killed in battle, or died by wounds, or 
by disease, and in prison under circumstances the most 
awful and appalling ! Yet how soon will this terrible 
loss of life and all these heart-rending scenes be com- 
paratively forgotten ! 

What this writer means by intemperance in "eating" is 
not so readily perceived ; undoubtedly in many instances 
our tables are loaded with too much variety, as well as 
too great quantity of food ; but it is impossible to adapt 
these two conditions to the habits, tastes, and health of 
all persons. We incline to think that this " intemperance " 
— at least a large part of it — consists in other things 
more peculiar to Americans, and that are decidedly vicious 
or injurious, among which may be enumerated : 

1. The hasty manner of eating — of bolting down food, 
without sufficient mastication, or giving time for the 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 233 

glands in the mouth and throat to make the necessary 
secretions. 

2. The practice of eating so much fine-flour bread, and 
that, too, frequently warm and poorly cooked. 

3. The substitution of strong coffee and tea for plain 
or simpler drinks. 

4. And the increased use of a rich, highly-seasoned, 
and stimulating diet. 

Within forty or fifty years there has been a marked 
change in the mode of living — in some respects greatly 
improved, but in others calculated to impair the health and 
the constitution. The change in organization, to an in- 
creased nervous tissue, demands a change in regimen 
richer in quality, more highly seasoned, and stimulating. 
The appetite and taste both become more exquisite, 
more capricious, and exacting, ^or instance, tea and 
coffee are used not only in greater quantities, but must be 
made nicer and stronger, and the demand for condiments, 
as well as desserts, has greatly increased, and every year 
they must be made richer and more heating or stimu- 
lating. 

At the same time, such a style of living and drinking 
serves to increase this nervous temperament more and 
more. The immediate tendency, therefore, of such a 
course, is to produce in this direction a species of physical 
degeneracy. It begets not only positive disease, but 
causes numerous weaknesses and complicated derange- 
ments in the system, which lay the foundation for 
complaints that may be partially relieved, but never 
cured. Such is neuralgia in all its endless forms, when 
based upon this organization. Every experienced physi- 
cian knows full well the difficulty of treating or curing 
that class of diseases called "neuroses," and that they 
are constantly multiplying. 

Under the head of " drinking," we include alcoholic 

16 



234 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

drinks, opiates, and tobacco. While there may be 
much plausible argument in favor of the moderate use 
of these articles in the type of organization found in 
the human system at the present day, still, according 
to all rational laws of physiology and pathology, their 
frequent, habitual, and extensive use must be condemmed. 
They should be resorted to only as medicinal agents, 
and then under the direction of wise and experienced 
physicians. 

As these articles are now used in our country, there is 
no question but that they are decidely injurious to the 
constitutions of our people, vitiating their blood and under- 
mining their health, and producing more or less a species 
of physical degeneracy. They injure not only the body of 
the individual by poisoning his blood, by producing disease, 
and causing frequently premature death, but impair the 
sound, healthy action of the brain, thus striking a serious 
blow at mental habits, as well as moral and religious 
character. But the evil does not stop here. It is trans- 
mitted to offspring even to the third and fourth genera- 
tions, and sometimes in an intensified form. When the 
seeds of disease and vice are thus transmitted, it becomes 
doubly important to avoid the cause. That the continuous 
and excessive use of alcoholic drinks, as well as of tobacco, 
whether by chewing or smoking, causes fatal diseases of 
the liver, of the stomach, and of the heart, is admitted by 
the highest medical authorities. While no examination 
can show exactly how many are killed by either one or 
'both of these agents, operating as first or secondary causes, 
it is undoubtedly true that great numbers do thus hasten 
their deaths. Besides, multitudes in the community carry 
through life the signs of decay from this source, in their 
walk, in their countenances, and throughout their whole 
physical systems. 

Whatever differences of opinion may exist in the com- 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 235 

munity as to whether the use of intoxicating drinks as a 
whole is increasing or not, there can be no question, we 
think, about the increased use of opium and tobacco. The 
sales of opium, in its different forms, have greatly in- 
creased within a few years, and it is well known to drug- 
gists and physicians that large quantities of this drug — 
mostly in the form of morphine — are consumed some- 
what privately by individuals and families, either as an 
anodyne or as a stimulating agent. If the real facts 
could be obtained as to the fearful extent and the terrible 
effects of the drug as used in this way, it would surprise 
and alarm the public. When this drug once gets posses- 
sion of its victim, there is no retreat, and the evidences 
of physical and mental degeneracy soon become well 
marked. 

That the use of tobacco, particularly in smoking, is 
rapidly increasing, is too apparent to require proof. And 
what should cause most regret in the matter is, that so 
many young men are resorting to this pernicious practice. 
The evils of this habit have been so often pointed out in 
detail that it seems unnecessary to repeat them here, much 
less to dwell upon them. But we venture the statement 
that the use of tobacco, chiefly in smoking, is exercising 
a destructive influence upon the physical and mental 
energies of great multitudes of our people ; and that, by 
its continued increase, together with the law of hereditary 
descent, it is likely to result in an untold amount of physi- 
cal degeneracy. 

In respect to the other charges against Americans 
above mentioned, namely : " inordinate passion for riches, 
overwork of body and mind, and undue hurry and excite- 
ment," we admit there is too much truth in them, and that 
they have a most intimate connection with the subject 
under discussion. From remarks previously made on the 
nervous temperament, it will readily be seen that " hurry 



236 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

and excitement " grow naturally in part out of the excess 
of this organization, and at the same time they help to de- 
velop it more and more, thereby aggravating the evil. 
This is one of the most discouraging features in the 
matter as to any future reform, namely : that the very evil 
itself operates both as a cause and effect, in conformity 
with a well-known law of morbid action in the system. 

The question might here arise, with free indulgence 
of the appetite for strong drink, tobacco, and opiates, to- 
gether with the strong love of riches, what may be the 
effects of such habits in the development of the brain ? 
Will they not tend to develop unduly those portions 
where the vicious propensities and the selfish sentiments 
have their seat ? If so, what effect will this leave upon 
the future habits and character of the people ? 

But this "passion for riches," and this "overwork of 
body and mind," have a broader, deeper, and far more 
significant meaning than what appears upon a cursory 
survey. From this source spring some of the most power- 
ful influences to undermine the constitution and the health 
of our people. We have set up a standard of living too 
expensive — yea, extravagant — that has too many wants ; 
we have not, as a people, the physical stamina or brain- 
power to reach this standard and live by it, a few in- 
dividuals may do it, but the many can not. Multitudes, 
attracted by the prize set before them, enter the arena, but 
a few only reach the goal. 

This standard is powerful in its influence, including 
the fashions of the day, the equipage, the style, and the 
manner of living, both of individuals and families. Its 
mainspring is money — money — money — which, in the 
language of the wise man, "answereth all things." Con- 
sequently, money must be obtained by all means, and at 
whatever hazard and cost. The appeal it makes to the 
young, and particularly to heads of families, is almost 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 237 

omnipotent, and reminds us of the famous lines of the 
classic satirist, which have been not inaptly rendered : 

" My friend, get money ; get a large estate, 
By honest means ; but get at any rate." 

In this struggle for gain, what multitudes early break 
down in health, bring on disease, and sink into premature 
graves ! How fast some men grow old, what peaked and 
haggard countenances, what careworn and wrinkled feat- 
ures, what frail and lean bodies, do we behold ! What a 
large number of business men die in the prime of life, 
at thirty, forty, and fifty, when they should live to sixty, 
seventy, and eighty ! How many sudden deaths occur 
among such men, which would not in a healthy state of 
business ! 

How rapidly changes the organization of young men, in 
this battle of life, from freshness of countenance, vigor of 
muscle, and elasticity of spirits, to the pale complexion, 
the feeble body, and languid gait ! And the changes 
wrought in the constitution, health, and spirits of our 
women, in the headlong pursuit of fashion and style, are no 
less marked and deplorable. Do not such evidence and 
illustrations of change fully justify the conclusions we 
have drawn from them ? Can any one foretell what is to 
be the result of this state of things ? Does it not tend 
to establish the whole structure of society, as well as civili- 
zation, more and more upon a selfish and money basis ? 



The Human Body: Its Relations to 
Civilization. 



"HPHE first impression might lead one to suppose that 
such a subject as civilization would have little or no 
connection with the human system. But upon a careful 
investigation it will be found that the vital forces and the 
laws that govern the body sustain most intimate relations 
to true civilization. The very term civilize means to re- 
claim man from a savage state, to teach him the arts and 
all kinds of useful knowledge, to refine his manners, im- 
prove his habits, and secure for him the greatest possible 
amount of comfort and happiness. 

Now, the most important agent and object in all these 
changes is man himself. His nature or the laws that 
govern every part of his body must be more or less affected 
by these changes. Whatever goes to make up civilization, 
or whatever changes are brought about by it, these 
should harmonize with the nature of man. There can be 
no permanent or true civilization, unless it is adapted to 
develop the whole nature of man. After a careful analysis 
of the elements of civilization- — what it has been in the 
past, what it is at the present day, and what it should 
be — we find that its true foundation must be based 
upon the development of man's physical, mental, and 
moral nature, each in harmony with the other, and all to 
their highest extent. This grand idea or plan has, we 
believe, never been attempted, nor seriously considered, 
much less accomplished. 



THE HUMAN BODY : ITS RELATIONS TO CIVILIZATION. 239 

The Greeks and Romans made advances in this direc- 
tion, in developing the body and cultivating the mind, but 
failed in the moral element. We have at the present day- 
certain types of civilization which would be considered by 
some superior to any in the past, and by others not easy 
hereafter to be surpassed. But before we can determine 
what is true civilization, or before there can be a general 
agreement upon it, we must have some standard by which 
t can be tested. This must be the highest possible de- 
velopment of man's whole nature, the animal and intellec- 
tual obeying the moral and religious. Then true merit 
and real worth would receive their just reward. 

Every organ in the body is governed by its own law, and 
all parts of the system sustain certain relations to other 
parts as well as to external objects. As the brain is the 
crowning organ in the body, it is of the highest importance 
that all its functions should be properly and harmoniously 
exercised, and that to the fullest extent of which they are 
capable in a normal state. Such a development would 
constitute a normal state of physiology, and the central 
point toward which all civilization should be directed. 

Until some such state of society is brought about there 
can be no true or permanent civilization. Its type must 
be artificial, and to a great extent unnatural and unhealthy. 
As long as it rests upon such supports, it must be unsatis- 
fying and constantly changing. It partakes very much of 
this character at the present day. A distinguished writer, 
in characterizing it, maintains that wealth, fashion, and 
show are its principal supports. This criticism might 
at first seem unjust, but after all there is too much 
truth in it. One thing is certain — there is no general 
standard or agreement, and it would be difficult to decide 
in what direction progress is leading us. 

The fact is that in all the discussions on this subject 
scarcely any reference is ever made to the body. The 



24O PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

most voluminous writer on civilization, Guizot, speaks of 
the domestic affections, the intellectual powers, and moral 
forces, but never discusses the relation which these 
classes sustain one to the other, or whether they have any 
connection with the body or the brain, or whether there 
can be any change in the physical system, or whether 
the organization of individuals or races makes any differ- 
ence. 

Almost the only writer who has attempted to apply 
physiological principles to illustrate changes in history 
and the state of society is the late Dr. John W. Draper, 
of New York. His work, "History of the Intellectual 
Development of Europe," is not only a monument of 
thought and research, but an honor to the medical pro- 
fession. Says Doctor Draper : " Social advancement is as 
completely under the control of natural law as is bodily 
growth. The life of an individual is the miniature of the 
life of a nation." What we want is a practical applica- 
tion of these two propositions to the present state of 
society. It appeals emphatically to the members of this 
profession, as the body is peculiarly entrusted to their 
care and treatment. 

It may be thought by some that these suggestions are 
visionary and unworthy of thoughtful consideration, but 
such will not be the verdict of posterity. In reviewing the 
history of physiology, who will assert that there can be no 
new discoveries in this science, or new application of its 
principles ? What is the testimony of its teachers and 
professors — the highest living authority on the subject? 
Is it not that richer rewards await the votaries of this 
science, that the human family are to reap here golden 
harvests ? History teaches that the great truths of Nature 
are slowly brought to light at different periods and by a 
variety of agencies. 



Intermarriage of Relations. 



^THE intermarriage of relations is a subject which has 
always created much interest. The natural instincts 
of man seem to shrink from the idea of any such alliance 
between brothers and sisters, or parents and children, and 
also of unions in the same degree of relationship, as be- 
tween uncles and nieces or aunts and nephews. But when 
we come to the third degree — that of cousins — there does 
not seem to be the same natural aversion, and such mar- 
riages have become, at the present day, quite common. 
Some writers have considered the parties entering into this 
union the same, whether related to each other by consang- 
uinity or affinity — that is, by marriage. For instance, a 
man must not marry the sister of a deceased wife any 
sooner than his own sister, nor must a woman marry 
the brother of a deceased husband any more than her 
own brother. Others have taken a very different view 
of this last relation, and hence there have been many 
such marriages. Nearly all the leading religious denom- 
inations in Europe and in this country have condemned 
the intermarriage of persons related by affinity as well 
as those related by blood, and some of the most bitter 
personal controversies have arisen from this source that 
can be found in the whole history of the church. From a 
literal interpretation of the law of Moses, as well as a just 
construction of language, there are some grounds for this 
view. Most theories and legislation upon this subject may 
be traced directly to the law of Moses, as laid down in the 
eighteenth and twentieth chapters of Leviticus. From the 



242 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

improper habits and practices of different nations and 
tribes of people prior to this period, it is supposed that 
it was found absolutely necessary to promulgate certain 
laws or principles by which all such alliances should be 
regulated. In the eighteenth chapter of Leviticus may be 
found a very minute description of various relationships 
wherein no such unions should ever be formed ; still, a 
good deal of discussion and difference of opinion have 
arisen upon the meaning of the phrase "near of kin," 
found in the sixth verse of that chapter. 

While it has been very generally agreed that the law of 
Moses extended only to the third degree of relationship, 
portions of the Church have extended it even to the 
seventh degree. Most civilized nations, that have legis- 
lated at all upon the subject, have based their statutes upon 
their understanding of the law of Moses. So of the re- 
ligious denominations, though some have been far more 
rigid than others in the practical application of their in- 
terpretation of those laws. The Grecian and Latin fathers, 
as well as the early reformers, adopted the Levitical law. 
The Roman Catholic church early introduced it as a 
canon ; and the Episcopal, together with the various 
branches of the Lutheran, the Presbyterian, the Dutch 
Reformed, etc., have considered it generally a fundamental 
part of their creed. But of late years there has been 
more and more of a growing laxness as to the observance 
of these laws, as well as of discipline on the part of the 
churches belonging to these various religious bodies. The 
term Incest has been applied to the violation of this Levit- 
ical law, and seems to have be en pretty well understood by 
many of the nations of antiquity. Not only the Levites 
and Jews generally understood it, but the Canaanites and 
Egyptians, as well as the Greeks and the Romans. 
Socrates said of incestuous m arriage at Sparata and 
Athens that they were "prejudical to healthy propagation 



INTERMARRIAGE OF RELATIONS. 243 

of the species"; and Plutarch, referring to the laws of the 
Romans on this subject, says : "They abstain from marry- 
ing their kinswomen in every degree of blood." 

History shows, that among the rulers, generals, and 
eading characters of ancient Syria and Egypt, there was 
an unusual amount of such intermarrying, and that almost 
invariably it turned out badly. In the history of the 
royal founders of different nations there has been at times 
a great number of such intermarriages, and it is well known 
that very many of these have proved decidedly unfavorable 
as far as offspring is concerned. So marked was the effect 
that a peculiar disease, called the " king's evil," was said 
to originate from this source, and to become very common 
and troublesome. The power and influence which these 
families had endeavored in this way to perpetuate, has 
come to naught, and the name in history almost extinct. 
In different nations, and at different periods, an immense 
number of facts have been collected showing the bad 
effects of the intermarriages of relations. These effects 
have been particularly marked in producing a large number 
of children who were deaf-and-dumb, blind, idiotic, feeble- 
minded, predisposed to insanity. The most striking illus- 
tration of this kind was collected by Dr. S. M. Bemus, 
of Kentucky, and published in the "Transactions of the 
American Medical Association," for 1858, which were as 
follows. Doctor Bemus, reported 833 such marriages, giv- 
ing the time of marriage, the occupation, the temperament, 
the health, habits, etc., of the parents, with the number of 
children, their defects, peculiarities, etc., etc. The whole 
number of children was 3,942, of whom, 1,134 were de- 
fective : 145 deaf-and-dumb, 85 blind, 308 idiotic, 38 
insane, 60 epileptic, 300 scrofulous, 98 deformed, and 833 
died early. The proportion reported deaf-and-dumb, 
blind, idiotic, scrofulous, and deformed is altogether 
larger than what would be found among the children of 



244 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

families in the community, taking them indiscriminately. 
The degree of relationship in these cases is thus given : 
10 marriages between brother and sister, or parent and 
child; 12 between uncle and niece, or aunt and nephew ; 
61 between blood-relations, who were themselves the de- 
scendants of blood-relations ; 27 between double-first 
cousins; 600 between first cousins; 120 between second 
cousins, and 13 between third cousins. In a careful ex- 
amination of the several degrees of consanguinity here 
given, the hereditary effects are found to be the worst 
in the first and second degrees, in the third not so bad ; 
but when we come to the fourth, fifth, and sixth, the 
difference is not so perceptible. 

As those cases were gathered largely at the West, in 
Kentucky and the adjoining states, we present an illustra- 
tion from New England. 

In a report presented to the legislature of Massachusetts, 
in 1848, by Dr. S. G. Howe, making inquiry as to the 
causes of blindness, idocy, etc., in the state, the following 
facts were elicited : The parentage of 359 idiots was 
ascertained. Seventeen were children of parents known 
to be near blood-relations. Three were from parents who 
were cousins. One-twentieth of all the idiots examined 
were offspring of blood-relations. The intermarriages of 
cousins do not constitute one-twentieth of all the mar- 
riages — probably not one five-hundredth ; therefore, the 
union of blood-relations produces more than its share of 
idiots. All sorts of human defects follow such marriages 
in a similar ratio, namely : deafness, blindness, insanity, 
rheumatism, excitability, etc. Of the seventeen families 
where the parents were blood-relations, most of them were 
intemperate or scrofulous. In some cases both conditions 
prevailed. There were born among them 95 children, 44 
of whom were idiots; 12 others were scrofulous or puny. 
In one family of 8, 5 were idiotic. Of the seventeen 



INTERMARRIAGE OF RELATIONS. 245 

families, the account stands thus : 6 have I idiotic child 
each; 2 have 2; 3 have 3; 5 have 4; and 1 has 
5 — making, of the 95 children from seventeen families, 
44 idiots ; that is, nearly one-half were imbecile. Add 
those otherwise imperfect, the 12 scrofulous and puny, 
the 1 deaf, and the 1 dwarf, then we have 58, showing 
more than one-half in an abnormal condition. The parents 
who had the four idiots had also four other children who 
were deformed. 

A great amount of statistics on this subject has been 
gathered by different writers, and in various localities, 
which would certainly seem to indicate that some gen- 
eral law must lurk beneath them ; yet no very definite 
principles or settled laws have hitherto been deduced 
from them. While new discoveries in science and im- 
provements in society generally have been gradually clear- 
ing up many obscure and complicated questions, those 
connected with the effect of such intermarriages still re- 
main in a great measure unsolved — resting in a kind of 
mystery. That these important facts, so extensively and 
rapidly accumulating, should thus stand out unexplained 
is an opprobrium to physiology, and constitutes, as it were, 
an exception to the results of inquiries in other depart- 
ments of science after the true secrets or laws of Nature. 

The great difficulty here has been the want of some 
universal standard of appeal, or some general law of in_ 
crease founded in Nature, whereby all these facts could be 
properly classified, and then correctly tested We propose 
now to suggest such a standard or law, and apply it by 
way of test to this great class of facts, and see whether 
any new light can thus be obtained, by which these doubt- 
ful and disputed points may be settled. If all facts and 
theories on this subject can be harmonized — can be shown 
to have a foundation in Nature, and can be reconciled by 
application of the law about to be suggested — it will cer- 



246 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

tainly afford very strong evidence of the existence of 
such a law. 

Without going into details as respects all the minor 
points or the particular evidence in support of this law, we 
will here present its substance in as brief a manner as 
possible. It is based upon a petfect development of all the 
organs in the human body, so that there shall be a perfect 
harmony in the performance of their respective functions. 

This standard of physiology, as represented by a com- 
plete development and harmony of the temperaments, is 
the same perfect organization of man as when he came 
from the hands of his Maker, and was pronounced not only 
"very good," but was commanded to be " fruitful and 
multiply and replenish the earth." But by man's course 
of disobedience and rebellion he lost not only the moral 
likeness and image of his Creator, but that harmony and 
perfection in his physical organism which he has never yet 
been able to regain. 

In the discussion of this subject we have before us 
three central points or leading factors that sustain most 
intimate and important relations to each other. These 
are : 1, The facts connected with the intermarriages of 
consanguinity ; 2, The general principles established by 
Nature for human increase ; and 3, The laws of hereditary 
descent. But before attempting to examine these relations 
in detail it may be well to notice particularly some facts 
in the history of the world, that led to the promulgation of 
the Levitical law upon this subject. 

There is good reason to believe that, in the early history 
of the race, the intermarriage of kindred was a thing of 
frequent occurrence. From the time when the sons and 
daughters of Adam are supposed to have intermarried, be- 
fore the laws of Moses, all the prohibitions then laid down 
upon the subject of marriage had been violated more or 
less in every age and nation. Those ancient patriarchs 



INTERMARRIAGE OF RELATIONS. 247 

and distinguished leaders among the people of God — 
Abram, Isaac, and Jacob — all married wives connected 
with them by consanguinity, and no intimation is made in 
the Scriptures of the violation of any law in their case, or 
that their progeny suffered any deterioration by such 
alliances. But when the chosen tribes of Israel were 
about to enter the land of Canaan, and be exposed to new 
and manifold temptations, it pleased the Almighty to 
promulgate some new laws for their protection and future 
prosperity. With the exception of the Israelites, the 
world at that time had become terribly corrupt and wicked, 
particularly the inhabitants of Canaan. They had become 
not only the worst kind of idolaters, but every vice that 
could degrade human nature or pollute society was ram- 
pant among them. " In the black catalogue of these," says 
Professor Bush, "the abominations of lust stand pre- 
eminent ; and whether in the form of adultery, fornication, 
incest, sodomy, or bestiality, they had now arisen to a 
pitch of enormity which the forbearance of Heaven could 
tolerate no longer, and of which a shuddering dread was to 
be begotten in the minds of the people of the covenant. 
And, in order that no possible plea of ignorance or un- 
certainly might be left in their minds as to those con- 
nections which were lawful and which were forbidden, the 
Most High proceeds to lay down a number of specific pro- 
hibitions on this subject, so framed as not only to include 
the extra-nuptial pollutions which had prevailed among the 
heathen, but also all those incestuous unions which were 
inconsistent with the purity and sanctity of the marriage 
relation." 

It was in view of such vices, crimes, and exposures, that 
we have promulgated those divine commands and pro- 
hibitions in the Levitical law as to the relations between 
the sexes, accompained with their awful threatened pen- 
alties. But are we to suppose the revealed law the only 



248 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

command ? Had not those commands or prohibitions their 
counterpart in human nature ? in the great laws of increase 
— in the physical laws of life and health ? Would a divine 
lawgiver institute such specific commands to subjects, if, 
as Creator, he did not know there had been created in 
these very subjects an adaptation for these commands, 
and that practically there must be harmony between the 
natural and revealed law ? 

It will be readily admitted that such vices and crimes as 
are here referred to can not be practised long without 
generating the most loathsome and fatal diseases. If only 
now and then an individual was guilty of such sins the 
consequences would not seem so serious ; but when large 
numbers, or a whole people, become thus vitiated and 
corrupt, the effects are terrible. We find abundant 
evidence of this in the history and extinction of the 
Canaanites ; as of other people given up to such prac- 
tices. Now, one of the preliminary steps or first stages 
that led to such a demoralization in ancient times was un- 
doubtedly the intermarriage of relations. And the Al- 
mighty, knowing full well what was the nature of man — 
what was necessary for the best protection, development, 
and perpetuation of the race — saw fit to issue those rigid 
instructions found in Leviticus. It was not merely to 
guard his people then from temptation, or from inter- 
marrying among the heathen, or simply to promote good 
morals among themselves, but to afford guides for the 
formation of such alliances in all coming time. And the 
spirit, the intent of those instructions as a whole, are more 
important than what their exact letter or literal interpre- 
tation, in the opinion of some, would seem to imply. 
Neither should one of the minor or doubtful prohibitions 
be unduly magnified, without properly considering its 
practical application or particular adaptation. Thus, in the 
case of a man's marrying his wife's sister, some religious 



INTERMARRIAGE OF RELATIONS. 249 

denominations have considered it a criminal offense, and 
punish the offending party with the severest discipline of 
the church. 

In order to a better understanding of these facts as con- 
nected with physical organization, let us recur to the laws 
of hereditary descent and human increase. Now, by apply- 
ing the principle of hereditary descent that "like begets 
like," and that where two parties unite in marriage, of 
similar temperaments, with the same organs defective in 
structure or morbid in function, the evil in their offspring 
becomes intensified, if not doubled. It is well known that 
there are generally in families certain resemblances of 
features, form of the body, complexion of the skin, color 
of the hair, and frequently of physical and mental qualities 
throughout. Now, if marriage alliances take place with 
parties belonging to these family connections, and if these 
same individuals happen to have similar temperaments, 
with the same morbid tendencies to disease, what is the 
effect ? Will it not transmit to the offspring imperfection 
of organization, weakness of the body, tendencies to dis- 
ease, mental peculiarities, and all these increased, inten- 
sified ? Let such alliances be continued through two or 
three generations, and what will be the effect but to make 
these evils worse, if not gradually to destroy the power 
of reproduction ? Here comes in the great law of increase 
or population, which is the source — the fountain-head — 
whence all the laws of hereditary descent have their 
origin, their springs, their authority. It is that perfect, 
harmonious development of the system with which man 
was created, and which must always be our standard of 
imitation and appeal. It consists in the perfect develop- 
ment of all the organs in the body, with the harmonious, 
healthy performance of all their respective functions. 

And the nearer this standard is approximated in mar- 
ried life, with all other conditions favorable, the greater 

17 



250 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

will be the number of children possessed of a full amount 
of vitality, vigor, strength, and health. While, on the 
other hand, the further we deviate from this standard, the 
more defective the organization of the offspring, and the 
less and less numerous, so that, when carried to the ex- 
treme point, the race is in danger of becoming extinct. 
For instance, let the physical organization become more 
and more defective, with a constantly-increasing amount 
of weakness, ill-health, and positive disease : there is not 
only marked degeneracy, but an inevitable tendency to the 
extinction of such a people. Or let the animal nature 
alone gain complete ascendency — its wants absorb all the 
attention of the mind as well as the labor of the hand — 
and the whole body sinks into a gross, sensual, and beastly 
state ; we shall find that Infinite Wisdom has set limits to 
the race in this direction. Or let the nervous temperament 
become altogether too predominant let it absorb all the 
nutrition of the body, let the mind ascend to the highest 
possible state of refinement, culture, and spirituality, to 
the neglect of the body as such : we shall find the offspring 
physically growing feebler, weaker, fewer in number, and 
finally incapable of propagating the race. 

Occasionally we find in the writings of well-known 
medical men sentiments favorable to the views here 
advocated, though penned a long time since. Such is 
the following quotation from Doctor Pritchard : " Nature 
seems to have designed that the conditions and tendencies 
of human organisms should be kept very nearly in a state 
of equilibrium. This equipoise necessary to the healthy 
condition of man, upon whatever inexplicable cause it may 
depend, may be easily disarranged by giving undue pre- 
dominance to any particular conditional phase. The 
slighter deviations from a normal mean would constitute 
individual or family peculiarities ; while more marked per- 
versions become morbid manifestations, and infirmity re- 



INTERMARRIAGE OF RELATIONS. 25 I 

suits. As in the moral man none are exempt from the 
taint of sin, so in the physical man each individual of our 
race has his obliquity toward disease — generally, perhaps 
uniformly, toward some particular disease. It is, then, 
reasonable to expect that, when two individuals marry 
who possess the same morbid proclivity, their offspring 
will exhibit that identical divergence, but in a much more 
marked degree. Thus undoubtedly have originated many 
family peculiarities, perverted tastes, and morbid diathe- 
ses." The first two sentences in this quotation seem to 
express precisely the same condition or state of physiology 
upon which the law of human increase, as here advocated, 
is based. Had Docter Pritchard lived at the present day, 
the cause why this equilibrium or equipoise is so neces- 
sary to the healthy condition of man would not probably 
have appeared to him so " inexplicable." 

If a careful "and thorough investigaton should be made 
into the laws of population and hereditary descent, it will 
show, we believe, aside from a few isolated passages in the 
New Testament and the mandates of Moses, that the 
marriage institution has a broad, sure, and unquestioned 
foundation in the laws of Nature itself. It can be shown, 
by these laws alone, that for the healthy increase and 
perpetuation of the race, such an institution as that of 
marriage is absolutely necessary. And as a part and 
parcel of the conditions and results of this institution, 
comes in here this question of the intermarriage of rela- 
tions. It is unnecessary to attempt to account for the ill 
effects of these marriages by advocating that there is some 
"organic vitiation" in such cases, or that there is some- 
thing mysterious in the " blood of kindred." All the ef- 
fects of such unions, however singular and conflicting, can 
be explained upon altogether more rational and satisfactory 
grounds. Admitting the fact that there is a greater re- 
semblance, likeness, similarity, in family connections, ex- 



252 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

tending sometimes to almost every organ in the body, 
than would be found in the same number of families 
not at all related, and that, when these connections form 
matrimonial alliances, it must have, according to the laws 
of hereditary descent, a marked and decided effect upon 
their offspring — if, in addition to this resemblance or 
likeness, these same parties should both have internal 
parts of the body imperfectly developed, morbid, or dis- 
eased, the effect must be still greater and more injurious. 
The nearer the relation, and more imperfect and diseased 
the bodies of both are, the effects become still more obvi- 
ous as well as injurious. 

No general rule of evil tendencies or bad effects from 
the intermarriage of consanguinity can well be established 
upon that fact alone ; but, upon certain conditions that are 
usually found connected with such alliances, certain effects 
can be predicted as most likely to follow. And inasmuch 
as these conditions, in the very nature of things, are more 
likely to be found existing in these cases, and are well 
known to prove more unfavorable than favorable to off- 
spring ; and, moreover, as the evil tendencies rapidly 
accumulate with each successive generation, it was upon 
this ground that the Levitical law was established, and on 
this account such marriages should not take place. 

There may be instances of such unions where the or- 
ganization is so good on both sides, where the laws of 
life and health, of hygiene and good morals, are so well 
observed, that no bad effects whatever follow, and where 
the children and their descendants have the best health, 
reach the greatest longevity, and obtain distinguished 
positions and character in the world. 

There are two phrases in common use, which, when 
applied to the laws of hereditary descent, are very ex- 
pressive and full of meaning, viz. : " good stock," and 
"it runs in the blood." The primary signification of 



INTERMARRIAGE OF RELATIONS. 253 

the word stock is stem, trunk ; their lineage, ancestry, 
race, etc. As the term is here used, it has a kind of 
collective or compound sense, meaning the highest and 
best qualities, physical and mental, combined in some one 
individual descended from a noble line of ancestry. Such 
examples may be found even in the line of consanguineous 
marriages, though more common where there is no relation- 
ship. By the word "blood" is meant, not that vital fluid 
common to all and essential to life, but some marked traits 
of character, or peculiarities in one family, lineage, or an- 
cestry ; but, as more generally used, it designates in the 
individual some act or qualities that are mean, low-lived, 
vicious, sensual, characteristic, by association and inherit- 
ance, of the family or ancestry, etc. 

There are two other phrases frequently used in reference 
to the improvement of domestic animals, and which are not 
devoid of meaning when applied to the human race. These 
expressions are, " in-and-in breeding" and " the system of 
crossing" ; and they derive all their meaning and force 
from the laws of increase and hereditary descent. For a 
definite and complete understanding of these phrases, the 
reader is referred to works treating of the improvement of 
domestic animals, where such principles can be far more 
readily and effectively applied. What has been found out 
here by a long series of experiments, could have been 
ascertained, in a great measure and far easier, by a knowl- 
edge of the laws here discussed. 

Darwin, who has investigated biology more thor- 
oughly than any other writer, makes the following 
significant remarks. Says he : " It is apparently a uni- 
versal law of Nature that organic beings require an occa- 
sional cross with another individual." Again he says : 
" Nature tells us in the most emphatic manner that she 
abhors perpetual self-fertilization." And in another place 
he remarks that " marriages between relations are likewise 



254 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

in some way injurious ; that some unknown great good is 
derived from the union of individuals which have been kept 
distinct for several generations." But as to the philosophy 
or reasons, just "in what way" the evil following such 
marriages occurs, or can be avoided, or how or by what 
principles in different unions that " unknown good" can be 
obtained, Darwin does not tell us. The great beauty and 
value of such discussions depend very much upon how 
far they are made clear and intelligible to the common 
mind, and to what extent it is shown that they can be 
reduced practically to every-day life. Such a result is cer- 
tainly very desirable in discussing a science like physi- 
ology, which professes to expound the laws that govern 
every human being. 

The inquiry naturally arises, then, What are the re- 
lations which these laws practically sustain to the pub- 
lished facts upon this subject ? It was stated that the 
nearer the kindred or blood in such marriages, the worse 
were the effects. In the report by Doctor Bemus there 
were ten cases of marriages between brother and sister or 
parent and child, and twelve between uncle and aunt or 
aunt and nephew ; the former class had 31 children, 29 of 
whom were defective, and 19 idiotic ; the latter class had 
53 children, of whom 40 were defective, and 3 idiotic. 
Says Doctor Bemus : " The increase and diminution of 
calamities to offspring correspond so closely with the in- 
crease and decrease of relationship, as to fix the conviction 
firmly in the mind that multiplication by the same blood 
by in-and-in marrying does incontestably lead in the aggre- 
gate to the physical and mental depravation of the off- 
spring. And if we admit this statement, which the facts 
here abundantly prove — that defects of offspring multi- 
ply precisely as we multiply the same blood — and to this 
admission join the fact that all those contingent circum- 
stances of parental health, habits, proclivities of consti- 



INTERMARRIAGE OF RELATIONS. 255 

tution, sexual incongruity, etc., are as liable to affect one 
class as another, we can not rationally assign these effects 
to any other influence than consanguinity." 

There are two classes of facts bearing on this point that 
should here be noticed. It was stated, when speaking of 
the law of population, that in proportion as the standard 
of physical organization is let down, in balance and quality, 
the less in the aggregate will be the number of offspring, 
and the greater the tendency to unproductiveness. Ac- 
cordingly, in the cases reported of such marriages, it is 
found that the nearer the kindred and the poorer the or- 
ganization, the fewer the children and the greater the 
number of sterile cases. As there may be other causes 
of sterility, it may be difficult to establish any fixed rule, 
but we think the principle here stated will, as a general 
thing, hold good. 

There are two other correspondences found between the 
law and the facts. It was said, in describing the law of 
hereditary descent, that the more the parents were affected 
with scrofulous and other diseases, the more detrimental 
were the effects upon the offspring. An abundance of 
facts could be adduced in support of this position. And, 
on the other hand, the opposite doctrine is no less true, 
that where the organization of parents is good, the chil- 
dren generally will not suffer in their physical or mental 
qualities. 

This doctrine of hereditary tendencies is clearly pointed 
out in the Bible, both by precept and example, in numer- 
ous instances. When Jehovah issued His commands in 
the decalogue, not only to the Israelites, but to His crea- 
tures in all coming time, saying, " 1 the Lord thy God am a 
jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the 
children unto the third and fourth generations" it was in- 
tended that there should be some meaning in this visitation. 
Whatever divine influences or agencies may be brought 



256 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

into operation in other respects, it is positively certain that 
here, by laws of hereditary descent, the iniquities of the 
fathers are visited upon the children unto the second, 
third, and fourth generations. The term " iniquity " has 
a broad signification, including the consequences or pen- 
alties of violated law, whether that law be expressed in 
the revealed command of God, or stamped by the same 
Almighty power upon the human constitution. 

As there are only two classes of marriages in question 
that really, at the present day, create very much interest 
— that is, the intermarrying of cousins, and the marrying 
of a wife's sister — it may be expected that the merits 
and demerits of these should be particularly noticed. In 
respect to the former class, the objections and prejudices 
which once existed against such unions seem to be dying 
out, and such marriages are becoming more and more 
common. 

It is a grave question still with some divines, whether 
it was the intention or not of the Levitical law to extend 
to cases of this latter kind. The relationship by affinity, 
making the wife's sister the same as a sister by blood, does 
not seem to commend itself generally to the common-sense 
of mankind. 

The fact that she has, by chance, been a member of 
the same family or in frequent social intercourse with 
it, in the opinion of some would present an argument 
against the formation of such alliances ; on the other 
hand this very experience and acquaintance — especially 
where there are small children — would constitute a 
very strong argument in its favor. If the question 
was to be settled by any principle, its hould be on the 
ground of organization and adaptation of the parties in- 
terested. The effects of such a union are far more im- 
portant and permanent in this direction than anywhere- 
else ; and it was mainly to reach and regulate these, that 



INTERMARRIAGE OF RELATIONS. 257 

the Levitical law was first established. The strong 
tendencies of the popular mind at the present day — and 
we think physiological laws sustain this sentiment — are in 
favor of such unions. 

But in respect to the intermarriage of cousins, it has 
never been asserted that these were specifically interdicted 
by the law of Moses, though very strong prejudices have 
always existed in the community against the practice. 
We can not, perhaps, express the opinions that some per- 
sons entertain upon this subject better than by quoting 
the following sentences from one of our popular periodi- 
cals. Says this writer : " Whether cousins should inter- 
marry, or be considered as within the forbidden degree, it 
is indisputable that many cousins have intermarried ; and 
it is equally beyond dispute that, in many instances, the 
offspring of such marriages are, to all appearance, as well 
calculated to make good figures in life as any young per- 
sons. Every man must have among his acquaintances 
families like those spoken of and can testify that the mar- 
riages of cousins do not always lead to the birth of idiots. 
Hence it is not just to speak of such marriages as if they 
must lead to the increase of imbecility ; and the sweeping 
language that is sometimes employed on the subject, be- 
sides being unsupported by facts, causes no little misery 
to men and women who do not deserve to have their lives 
made wretched by extravagant assertions that would place 
them in the black list for life. Cousins who have married, 
and to whom it never occurred that in marrying they vio- 
lated any moral or physical law, are startled when they 
read in respectable publications that their children's only 
inheritance is to ' all the ills that flesh is heir to.' ' 

But inasmuch as there is in cousins, according to the 
best statistics gathered, so much of a family resemblance 
or likeness, and so much imperfection of structure, or 
morbidness of function, or eccentricity of character is 



258 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

found to accompany it, that the hereditary effects are pre. 
judicial to offspring, we are warranted in laying it down 
as a general rule, that cousins should not intermarry unless 
possessing sound constitutions. This rule is the more im- 
perative, when it is considered that the evil effects accumu- 
late with wonderful power in every successive generation, 
and that there is no absolute necessity for the formation 
of such marriages. As free moral agents and accountable 
beings, then, we have no right to inflict upon the innocent 
such an untold amount of misery and suffering. 

At the same time, there may be found many instances 
of such intermarrying, where the parties have good organ- 
izations and are more healthy than the average run of 
people, with children equally as numerous and healthy. In 
such cases there can be, as far as we can discover, no valid 
objection whatever to cousins intermarrying. This repre- 
sentation of the case is in accordance with the great body 
of statistics collected, is sustained by the laws of human 
n crease and hereditary descent as here set forth, and will 
commend itself, we doubt not, to the common-sense and 
intelligence of the most enlightened portions of the com- 
munity. It places the responsibility, whether for good or 
evil, upon the free-agency, knowledge, and moral sense of 
the individuals most interested, — just where God designed 
it should be. 

One object of discussing this question of intermarriage 
of relations was to show that the Levitical law had its 
counterpart in the laws of physiology. There must have 
been evils of the most flagrant character, from such 
unions among the Israelites, the Amorites, the Canaanites, 
etc., that led Moses, the lawgiver of Israel, to institute 
those laws found in Leviticus. And history shows that 
these specific directions in respect to the intermarriage of 
relations had a foundation in the laws of the physical 
system — that they were no mere arbitrary commands, a 



INTERMARRIAGE OF RELATIONS. 259 

1 

dead letter in the decalogue, — but were sustained by the 
principles of physiological science. Whatever effect the 
promulgation of these laws had at the time upon the 
Israelites, it is evident that some knowledge of them ex- 
tended to heathen nations and commanded their respect. 
They had a powerful influence among some of the most 
enlightened people of antiquity ; and wherever civilized 
nations have legislated at all upon marriage, these laws 
have been the basis. 

Among the largest religious denominations in the world 
these laws have had a great . influence, and, in some of 
them, they have been adopted as a canon in their creed 
and practice. The Mohammedans, notwithstanding poly- 
gamy is practised among them, are shocked at such inter- 
marriages. The Koran has this remarkable passage : 
" Ye are forbidden to marry your mothers and your 
daughters, and your sisters and your aunts, both on the 
father's and on the mother's side ; and your brother's 
daughters and your sister's daughters, and your foster 
sisters and your wives' mothers, and your daughters-in-law 
who are under tuition, and the wives of your sons ; and 
ye are also forbidden to take to wife two sisters." The 
Greek and Romish churches embody the substance of 
these laws in a part of their canons, and have been some- 
what rigid in carrying them into practice, especially the 
latter body. The leading branches of the Protestant 
church — the Episcopal, the Presbyterian, the Baptist, etc. 
— have adopted these laws as a part of their creeds. 

The human body was the same, and was governed by 
the same laws, in the time of Moses as at the present day. 
The Levitical laws and the comments in the decalogue 
were wisely adapted to certain physiological conditions of 
the body. "Visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the 
children unto second, third, and fourth generations," are 
the mere penalties attached to violated laws. There must 



260 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

be perfect harmony between the revealed commands of 
God and His laws stamped upon the human system ; and 
when correctly interpreted, there can not be any disagree- 
ment. The laws of hereditary descent are unmistakably 
taught in the Scriptures, but these can not be understood 
or applied, without having their origin and foundation in 
a general law of propagation. And we do not see how 
this whole subject can be satisfactorily explained without 
the admission of such a law. The question may be asked, 
why a law so important should not have been discovered 
before ? Many answers might be given. 

It seems to have been the design of Providence that the 
great truths of Nature should be slowly brought to light 
at different periods, and sometimes in a very incidental 
manner, as well as by humble agencies. The laws of 
gravitation were the same, and similar phenomena had 
been witnessed by multitudes, long before Newton, from 
the falling of an apple, caught the idea that there was 
some peculiar or occult power indicated by that apparent 
accident. The heart had been repeatedly examined by 
anatomists — its structure and functions had been carefully 
studied by large numbers of physicians — before Harvey 
discovered the circulation of the blood. So, the morbid 
structure and functions of the lungs had been made a 
special study by many medical men, long before Laennec 
discovered, by auscultation and percussion, that the physi- 
cal outward signs could give such a wonderful insight into 
the pathology of this organ. All great truths, when once 
discovered, are very simple, and the surprise to all is, that 
they were not generally known before. 

If the theory here advanced is the true law of human 
increase or population, it is not a mere theory or an ab- 
stract general principle, but it is capable of endless appli- 
cations ; for instance, in affording us a better knowledge 
of man — his duties and responsibilities in relation to 



INTERMARRIAGE OF RELATIONS. 26 1 

himself, to the family, to society, and to his Maker ; in 
furnishing a guide, or great principle, by which certain 
practices and fashions in society, certain modes of 
education, systems of morals, legislation, etc., can be 
tested ; in showing the importance and sacreduess of the 
laws of life and health, that they are a part of the will and 
government of God in this world, as much as His revealed 
commands. 

In the discussion reference has been made to the har- 
mony between the facts in science and the principles of 
Revelation. Thus, when certain discoveries were made in 
astronomy, they were at first thought to conflict with the 
Bible ; the same was true in geology ; but, by more thor- 
ough researches, a surprising harmony was found to exist 
between the teachings of Revelation and the laws of 
Nature. May not the same result prove true in physi- 
ology ? As far as most practical purposes are concerned, 
we have as yet only reached the threshold — the vestibule 
of this temple of the science of man — with which, in point 
of actual value and utility, the sublime truths of as- 
tronomy and the more wonderful revelations of geology 
sink into comparative insignificance. 



College Sports. 



j^ EARLY twenty years ago, we made this statement : 
A " No system of education can be complete or carried 
to the highest extent of which the mind is capable 
while the laws that govern the body and the brain are 
ignored or violated. The time will come, too, when the 
officers of our colleges and universities will feel compelled 
to take into more careful consideration the physical wel- 
fare of students. And we venture the prediction that in 
no department of education will there be greater improve- 
ment, for the next fifty years, than in the better care and 
development of the human body." Though not half the 
time here specified has passed, there has been a great in- 
crease of interest in physical exercises of some kind in 
many of our highest institutions of learning. This inter- 
est has been manifested particularly in the direction of 
gymnastics, and the building of gymnasiums. Within a few 
years nearly fifty literary institutions in the United States 
have either built gymnasiums, or signified the intention of 
so doing and introducing physical exercises of some kind. 
This is a movement in the right direction, and can not 
fail in meeting with success. 

There has been a great increase of interest in other 
exercises of this kind, particularly in base-ball playing, 
boating, and in the exhibition of " Field days." The 
term "sport" is very appropriately applied to some of 
these exercises, as in order to reap the full benefit from 
them, there must be combined more or less sport and 
amusement. Walking, the oldest of all these exercises, 



COLLEGE SPORTS. 263 

and once extensively practised, is falling behind, but is 
one of the best. It calls into play most of the muscles 
of the body ; requires no expense ; can be pursued in 
the open air, and when one can have pleasant company 
and attractive scenery, no better or more wholesome exer- 
cise can be found. There is another kind of exercise, hav- 
ing some advantages over walking, that is horse-back 
riding, but this can not be enjoyed without incurring ex- 
pense, and only in pleasant weather. One objection to 
both these exercises is that large numbers can not con- 
veniently engage in them at the same time. It seems 
necessary there should be a crowd or a large company 
present in order to create sport and perpetuate the inter- 
est. The exercise must be of that kind which makes a 
display — can be seen and known to the public. 

There is a game that creates great interest at times — 
that is, foot-ball. This is very exciting and is peculiarly 
calculated to develop the muscles of the lowest ex- 
tremities. This game comes in very opportunely for a 
change or variety, and when properly conducted, it affords 
very wholesome exercise. But there are objections to 
this game, inasmuch as the movements are apt to become 
very violent, and cause some sprains to the legs or injury 
to other parts of the body. Besides, such is the haste or 
zeal in pursuit after the ball, that it does not get all the 
hits, but not unfrequently individuals are severely injured 
by kicks aimed at the ball, or by violent contusions of the 
limbs. Some attempts have been made to introduce into 
our literary institutions the military drill, or tactics as 
regular exercises ; but, on account of their monotony and 
the difficulty of infusing into them, for any length of 
time, a proper degree of enthusiasm, they have failed. If 
the sound of the fife and the drum could be heard, with the 
mutterings of war at a distance, there would be no lack of 
life and enthusiasm. Such was the case in several of our 



264 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

institutions at the time of the civil war. In military 
schools where young men are trained for government ser, 
vice, this drill, in all its variety of forms, has answered 
an excellent purpose for improving the constitution and 
promoting physical health. 

Ball-playing and boating are peculiarly calculated to 
attract attention and excite general interest. These 
are well known, under the head of collegiate sports — 
sometimes one claiming most attention, again the other. 
Ball-playing has been so popular everywhere that it has 
been denominated the " National game." While the 
colleges may take the lead in this sport, a large number 
of ball clubs are organized in our cities and larger towns. 
If the college clubs were confined in the game with 
others organized within an institution, the whole matter 
could be managed much better. 

If the merits of ball-playing and boating are to be 
tested by the laws of health and sanitation alone, serious 
objections are found to them when the game is played 
under great excitement ; there is danger, in the long-con- 
tinued running and violent batting, of producing con- 
gestion of the lungs or an unnatural strain of the heart, 
which might prove fatal or result in serious disease. 
If the person has a constitutional weakness here, or any 
abnormal formation, there is still greater danger. 

Again : In ball-playing, a serious evil arises from the 
fact, that a few and the same muscles are called into 
exercise continuously. Then these portions of the limbs 
and of the body where those muscles are located, require 
more nourishment comparatively and become larger in 
size and much stronger. This violates one of the first 
principles in physiology for good health and long life. 
Sanitation demands a harmony or balance in the organiza- 
tion. One of the greatest safeguards against sickness and 
disease is a well-balanced constitution, and one of the 



COLLEGE SPORTS. 265 

primary objects of gymnastics is to develop the weak 
parts, in order to equalize the strength. The exercise 
of ball-playing, taken moderately and pursued under 
proper restrictions, possesses superior advantages. In a 
simple form, it requires no great preparation or expense. 
It is not necessary to hire persons to perform the most 
difficult part of the work, nor that wagers or bets should 
be offered by visitors. The game can be played without 
having great crowds in attendance, or an excited public 
awaiting the issue. It is the abuse of a good thing that 
does the injury. 

It is true, ball-playing has this special advantage, — it 
creates great interest in games and sports, and enlists 
heartily large numbers in physical exercises, some of 
whom have not been particularly before engaged in them. 
When this game is played so extensively in the country, 
with so much excitement, and the press filled with reports, 
the attention of the public is specially directed to physical 
development — to the importance of a sound constitution 
and good health. So far as waking up an interest in 
physical exercises or collegiate sports, this general ball- 
playing is a grand thing ; but the evils may counter- 
balance all the advantages. It is a question whether the 
only safe course for inter-collegiate sports is, that they be 
placed under a committee of the faculty of every college. 
As to gymnastics, these are placed under the care of the 
teacher of these exercises, where they are in safe-keep- 
ing. The exhibitions of field-day also should come under 
his supervision, as well as every exercise under the gym- 
nastic department of the college. 



18 



Mental Philosophy: 

Its Connection with Medicine.* 



^T^HE celebrated Doctor Rush, in enumerating the 
causes that retarded the progress of medicine, adduced 
as one of the principal, the neglect of cultivating those 
branches of science which are most intimately connected 
with medicine. These are, says he, chiefly " natural 
history and metaphysics." The former term he used in 
its widest sense, comprising both the animal and vegetable 
kingdoms ; but by the term metaphysics he intended to 
include only that field of inquiry which relates to a knowl- 
edge of the operations and faculties of the human mind. 
Though the above remark of Doctor Rush was made 
nearly a half-century since, yet it may apply, if we mistake 
not, with equal force and propriety to the present state of 
medical science. While every other branch of knowledge 
connected with medicine has been rapidly progressing, 
that styled here metaphysics has, to a very great extent, 
been treated with entire neglect by a large majority of 
this profession. Perhaps it may be safely stated, that in 
no other department of human improvement has there 
been a greater advancement for the last fifty years than 
in that of medicine. Every year has witnessed some 
important development of new truths, as well as a more 
correct application of those already discovered. Anatomy, 

* This essay was presented by the writer to the Faculty of Pennsyl- 
vania Medical College, March i, 1841, as an Inaugural Thesis for the degree 
of Doctor of Medicine. 



MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 267 

Physiology, and Surgery, have each within this period 
been enriched by many splendid discoveries and improve- 
ments. Pathology, which then was scarcely known or 
recognized as a distinct branch of medical study, has since 
received special attention and shed a vast amount of light 
upon the causes, symptoms, and treatment of disease. 
The departments of Materia Medica and Therapeutics 
have also been greatly improved by many new discoveries 
in chemistry and pharmacy. Add to these the experiences 
and observations of many able and skillful physicians, and 
we have medicine in its present highly cultivated and 
improved state. But the same cause which Doctor Rush 
mentions as retarding the progress of this noble science, 
still exists. While every other branch of medical knowl- 
edge has been constantly advancing, a knowledge of 
mind, as far as medicine is concerned, has remained 
almost stationary for centuries. Dr. Southwood Smith 
very correctly observes that "the degree in which the 
science of mind is neglected in our age and country — and 
may it not be justly added, in our profession? — is truly 
deplorable." There must be some cause or reason for this 
state of things, and the writer proposes in the present 
essay to inquire — 

1. Why the cultivation of metaphysics is so generally 
neglected by medical men ; and 

2. To point out the intimate connection of mental 
philosophy with medicine ; and 

3. To offer some remarks upon the importance of a 
knowledge of this science to the physician. 

In the first place, it can not be adduced as a reason 
why mental science is not more successfully cultivated, 
that not sufficient talent, learning, and research have been 
devoted to the subject. Some of the best minds that the 
world ever produced have labored assiduously in this 
field of study, and their productions bear the stamp of 



268 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

unwearied industry and profound attainments. Again : 
This neglect can not be accounted for by any reason 
deduced from the nature and unimportance of the subject. 
All writers on the philosophy of mind have borne their 
united testimony that a knowledge of the principles and 
applications of this science is of the highest possible 
importance. Yet the great and most efficient cause of 
this neglect, as we apprehend, remains to be stated — it is 
the erroneous mode of investigation that has been hitherto 
employed ; the leading defects of which may be summed 
up under the following heads. 

First, Metaphysicians have omitted in their investiga- 
tions almost entirely the intimate and necessary connection 
that exists between the mind and the body. In all their 
researches they have viewed the mind as an abstract 
essence — as existing, and performing all its operations, 
independent of any material instrument or agency. They 
have treated not only with neglect, but with disrespect, 
that great law established by an all-wise Creator — viz., that 
mind, in this world, should be dependent on physical organi- 
zation for its manifestations. This law constitutes the 
only true foundation upon which any correct system of 
mental philosophy can possibly be based ; and the conse- 
quence of overlooking this condition has proved most 
disastrous on the cultivation of metaphysics. The very 
term itself has become a by-word, and those who are 
devoted to its pursuit are not unfrequently made the sub- 
ject of remark and ridicule. To call a man (observes a 
popular writer) a metaphysician, at the present day, is a 
delicate mode of recommending him to a lunatic asylum ; 
and Doctor Armstrong, the well-known writer on medicine, 
has wittily defined metaphysics to be " the art of talking 
grave nonsense upon subjects beyond the reach of the 
human understanding." Doctor Bartlett, one of our 
countrymen, very justly remarks, that "almost the whole 



MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 269 

history of metaphysics is a record of absurdities, incon- 
sistencies, and contradictions. The very name has 
become, almost by common consent, only another name 
for intellectual harlequinism and jugglery. Never has 
the human mind been guilty of playing more fantastic 
tricks than when attempting, by misdirected and im- 
potent efforts, to unriddle the mystery of its own constitu- 
tion." 

Secondly, Writers on this subject have not only based 
their systems of philosophy on reflection and consciousness 
in general, but have erected their own individual con- 
sciousness into a universal standard. Says Dugald 
Stewart, in his philosophical essays, " All our knowledge 
of the human mind rests ultimately on facts for which we 
have the evidence of consciousness. And accordingly, in 
my inquiries, I have aimed at nothing more than to ascer- 
tain the laws of our constitution, as far as they can be 
discovered by attention to the subjects of our consciousness." 

This remark of Stewart will apply to nearly all the 
writers of the metaphysical school. But instead of con- 
sciousness being a true guide in mental investigations, it 
is decidedly unsafe and erroneous. In the first place, con- 
sciousness affords no positive evidence of the existence 
and functions of the cerebral organs, by means of which 
alone the mind acts in this life. It simply takes cogni- 
zance of mental operations in general, and throws com- 
paratively but little light on the nature or number of the 
distinct faculties of the mind. Again : It is impossible 
for an individual to base evidence on this source alone, 
without considering his own consciousness as a standard 
for all others. This constitutes one of the most radical 
errors of the metaphysicians. They have taken their own 
minds as a standard, or type, for the whole human race ; 
and, accordingly, each has begun to erect a system or 
theory of his own, by demolishing that of his predecessor. 



27O PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Now, the consciousness . of no two persons is alike, any 
more than the features of their bodies ; and it is utterly 
erroneous, as well as absurd, to consider such a guide or 
rule as susceptible of universal application. The great 
variety of systems, theories, and speculations in mental 
philosophy have arisen, in no small degree, from this 
source. Hence, too, the great diversity of opinions, as 
well as contradictions in conclusions, on the part of those 
devoted to its pursuit. This very fact affords prima facie 
evidence that their premises were false ; and conse- 
quently, that their systems were not founded in Nature, 
whose laws, when correctly interpreted, are always harmo- 
nious and everywhere the same. Truth, like its Author, 
is ever consistent with itself. 

Thirdly, Another radical defect in past methods of 
investigating mental phenomena consists in an almost 
entire reversal of the true mode of studying Nature. 
Observation and experiment are the only sources from 
which we can derive any positive evidence for the estab- 
lishment of principles in science. Facts must first be 
observed and properly classified ; and when a sufficient 
number have been collected, or none of a contradictory 
nature can be found, general principles may safely be 
deduced from these, and be considered as permanently 
established. But instead of pursuing this slow and 
tedious process, as marked out by the immortal founder of 
the inductive philosophy, metaphysicians have first com- 
menced by forming visionary hypotheses and assuming 
certain premises, and afterwards have attempted to recon- 
cile facts with these. They have retired to their cloisters, 
and speculated by the light of their own consciousness, 
when they should have studied by observation and ex- 
periment the great book of Nature. They have capriciously 
allotted faculties to man, and arbitrarily dictated laws to 
Nature ; and the consequence is, there has been but little 



MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 27 1 

of truth mingled in their researches. Some have denied 
to the mind all innateness of disposition or character, and 
have maintained that it was precisely like a piece of white 
paper {tabula rasa), capable only of being acted upon, and 
moulded by, outward impressions. Others have assumed 
that all minds were by nature alike as to capacity, and that 
the great diversity in the talents of different men was 
solely occasioned by external circumstances. In fact, no 
two leading metaphysical writers can be found who agree 
as to the nature or number of the faculties of the human 
mind. 

Fourthly, Another serious defect in past investigations 
on this subject is a complete failure to account for many 
mental phenomena. It is to be presumed of every true 
science, that it will afford some rational explanation of the 
principal causes and relations of the various phenomena of 
which it treats. But it is far otherwise with the one 
under discussion. Many facts in this science, as far as 
the labors of metaphysicians are concerned, now for more 
than two thousand years, remain to this day entirely inex- 
plicable. They afford no rational explanation whatever of 
the following topics : nature of genius; causes of diversity 
in talent and moral feeling among different individuals ; 
effects on the mind of opium, and other intoxicathig sub- 
stances, taken into the stomach; difference between the 
sexes ; the process of gradual development of the mental 
faculties ; the causes of idiocy ; the phenomena of dream- 
ing, som?iambulism, insanity, monomania, etc. Moreover, 
the philosophy of the will, the laws of free agency, and the 
different degrees of human accountability have never yet 
been satisfactorily expounded by any system of meta- 
physics. Other instances of failure might be adduced, 
but certainly the facts and phenomena already mentioned, 
among the most important in life, should be clearly and 
rationally accounted for by a system of mental philosophy. 



272 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Again : It is fair to infer that a science which should 
give a correct exposition of the faculties of the mind, and 
the laws which govern their development, would be fraught 
with the highest practical benefit to mankind. But when 
examined by such a test, how directly the reverse of this 
are all the labors of metaphysicians ! Their researches 
have been altogether too speculative and ethereal to be 
reduced to any practical purposes. The subject itself 
has not only fallen into disrepute, but, as a branch of 
study, receives scarcely any attention at the present day, 
in our seminaries and institutions of learning. In view of 
these facts, it is not surprising that the study of mental 
philosophy should have been neglected by medical men. 
Its principles, as hitherto taught, have had too little to do 
with physical organization, in order to come under their 
cognizance. But when the true mode of investigating the 
subject is correctly understood and admitted, it must 
devolve on the members of this profession to take the lead 
in its cultivation ; and they can then no longer continue to 
neglect it without violating the most sacred duties which 
they owe to medicine, as well as sacrificing the best inter- 
ests of the public. This brings us to a consideration of 
our second general head. 

2. The Connection of Mental Science with Medicine. — 
Before entering directly upon an examination of this ques- 
tion, it will be necessary to decide, or settle in some 
measure, what are true principles of mental science. 
It will be seen, from the preceding observations, that we 
can not rely upon the mode of investigation adopted by 
metaphysicians, neither can we obtain from this source a 
correct knowledge of the philosophy of the human mind. 
This fact must be admitted, we think, by all candid and 
competent judges. What, then, is the true foundation of 
mental science ? What are its principles, and the nature 
and amount of evidence in support of them ? 



MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 273 

First, then, we have no positive knowledge whatever of 
mind as an abstract essence or entity. Though we believe 
it to be of an immaterial and spiritual nature, destined to 
immortality, yet God has never endowed us with faculties 
capable of comprehending or taking cognizance of any 
such existence. It is therefore useless to indulge in any 
speculations about its nature or essence, and folly to predi- 
cate a system of mental philosophy upon such a basis. 
All we can possibly know of mind, as manifested in this 
world, is through its material instrument. That the brain 
is the organ of the mind has been the united testimony of 
the best writers on Anatomy for centuries, and is, more- 
over, confirmed by the opinions of the highest living 
authorities on the subject. Here, then, is the first prin- 
ciple — the foundation of mental science. In the second 
place, the brain is composed of a congeries of organs, cor- 
responding in number to the faculties of the mind. This 
is proved by analogy, observation, and experiment. The 
brain, as its anatomy shows on dissection, is a complex 
viscus or body, and is made up of distinct parts or organs. 
Now, according to a law pervading all organic matter, 
where distinct organs are found, however similar in struc- 
ture, or nearly connected in their relations, they perform 
entirely different functions. The brain can not be an 
exception to this universal law. Again : The mind con- 
sists of a plurality of faculties, and, in accordance with the 
counterpart of the law just stated, it must necessarily have 
a plurality of instruments. And both observation as well 
as experiment prove that these instruments are distinct 
organs in the brain. Thousands, who have made accurate 
and extensive observations, and whose testimony can not 
be called in question, agree on this point. They have, 
moreover, collected such a number of facts in confirma- 
tion of it as to afford positive and irresistible evidence of 
its truth to every unprejudiced and well-disciplined mind. 



274 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

It has also been found, by actual experiment in a multi- 
tude of instances, that whenever particular parts or organs 
of the brain suffer serious injury, the corresponding 
faculties of the mind have invariably been more or less 
impaired in their manifestations. No person can candidly 
and thoroughly investigate this proposition without being 
absolutely compelled to admit its truth. 

The third great principle in this science may be thus 
stated — the size of the organ, other things' being equal, is 
a measure of the power of its corresponding faculty. This 
law is also one of general application. The conditions in- 
volved in the phrase, " other things being equal," will of 
course vary in character under different circumstances ; 
but when properly considered, size is strictly a measure of 
power, and there can not be found an exception to the law 
throughout the universe. It is unnecessary here to accu- 
mulate facts either for the purpose of illustrating or prov- 
ing this principle. 

Our next inquiry is, Can we ascertain accurately the size 
of these several organs in the living head ? And secondly, 
Can we, by making proper allowances for the influence of 
these other conditions on size, judge correctly of the 
strength of the different faculties of the mind ? These 
qustions must be settled by matters of fact and actual ex- 
periment. They afford no chance for speculation or 
sophistry, and none but those who have carefully examined 
the subject are qualified to give testimony in the decision. 
First, then, can the size of the brain and its various parts 
be ascertained ? Says Magendie, " The only way of esti- 
mating the volume of the brain in a living person, is to 
measure the dimensions of the skull." Sir Charles Bell 
also observes, that " the bones of the head are moulded to 
the brain, and the peculiar shapes of the bones of the 
head are determined by the original peculiarity in the 
shape of the brain." Blumenbach, Cuvier, Monroe, and 



MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 275 

other distinguished anatomists have expressed similar 
sentiments. Thus by various measurements of the skull, 
then, externally, we can ascertain the size of the different 
organs of the brain. It is true, there may be certain ex- 
ceptions to this principle, as in the case of disease or old 
age, but these by no means invalidate its truth, or the 
practicability of its application. Some difficulty may also 
occasionally be experienced from the extreme thickness 
or irregularity of certain parts of the cranium, but the 
precise nature or amount of this difficulty can generally 
be understood, proper allowance can be made for it, and 
very correct inferences drawn as to cerebral development. 
Being able, then, to ascertain the size of the several 
organs of the brain, can we judge correctly of those con- 
ditions which influence or modify its functions ? These 
are, chiefly, constitution, temperament, health, and educa- 
tion, a knowledge of which may certainly be ascertained, 
both from the organization of an individual, as well as 
from his own statements concerning his history and cir- 
cumstances. This remark is not mere assertion — it is 
supported by a multitude of facts, and did the occasion re- 
quire, we might furnish an amount of evidence in confir- 
mation of its truth that could be neither disputed nor de- 
nied ; but, for the present, we must content ourselves by 
referring the reader to such works as treat particularly of 
those points. It may be asked, if we consider the above 
propositions sufficiently proved and established to be re- 
garded as settled principles in mental science ? We reply 
in the affirmative. This question is not to be decided by our 
individual knowledge on the subject, nor by the ignorance 
of the community generally. All the great principles in 
physical science have been discovered, proved, and estab- 
lished by a few original minds ; and the truth of such dis- 
coveries is always to be admitted, not by the extent to 
which they have been propagated, nor by the mere number 



276 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

who publicly advocate them, but from the positive evi- 
dence furnished by their original discoverers and expound- 
ers. It is thus we judge in relation to the truths of 
chemistry, geology, and natural philosophy; and it is un- 
fair, as well as unjust, not to apply the same rule to mental 
science. For its principles are based on precisely the same 
kind of evidence, appealing directly to the senses, obser- 
vation, and experiment ; and we venture to hazard the 
opinion that its leading advocates are as competent judges 
in this matter as the teachers of any other great depart- 
ment of science. 

Thirdly, It is well known that the state of the mind 
has a powerful influence over the body, especially when 
in a morbid or diseased condition. In no instance is this 
reciprocal influence more powerful, either for good or for 
ill, than in severe and unexpected injuries ; and under no 
circumstances whatever can it be brought to bear more 
efficiently than in surgical operations, which are attended 
with great difficulty and danger. There are undoubtedly 
many cases where the success of an operation, as well as 
the life of the patient, depends almost entirely on the state 
of mind or feelings at the time and afterwards. Now, a 
system of mental philosophy, based upon the functions of 
the brain, will afford the most essential aid in such cases. 
It will enable the surgeon to detect at once the strong 
and weak faculties of his patient, and thus assist in pre- 
senting such motives, and just such appeals, as will oper- 
ate most beneficially on the feeling and spirits. Says 
Doctor Rush, speaking in relation to medicine in general, 
"The advantage to be derived from this source {i. e., a 
knowledge of mind) might be a hundred times greater, 
were they properly directed by well-educated physicians." 

Pathology is comparatively a new light in medical 
science, as but little attention was given to the subject 
till within a few years. Its object is to investigate the 



MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 277 

changes which have taken place in the functional derange- 
ment or structure of an organic body, either as the cause 
or effect of disease. This mode of investigation has been 
prosecuted with great zeal, talent, and industry, by many 
of the most distinguished men in the profession, and it is 
to this source, more than to any other, that we are recently 
indebted for some of the most valuable discoveries and 
improvements in medicine. Among other inquiries, the 
morbid conditions of the brain have by no means escaped 
the notice of pathologists. At the same time, we venture 
to affirm that there is not another organ in the human 
system which has received an equal amount of attention 
as to its pathology, but what has been attended with more 
definite and satisfactory results. The cause of this arises 
from three sources : — viz., first, from the extremely delicate 
texture of the brain ; secondly, from the very complicated 
structure and intimate relations of its several parts ; and, 
thirdly, from our imperfect knowledge of its functions. 
The last, as we apprehend, is by far the most fruitful 
source of difficulty in itself, besides being, to a consider- 
able extent, the occasion of the two former. 

Pathology, as a science, is based on physiology. For 
an examination into the causes and effects of disease, 
whether it be functional derangement or change in organi- 
zation, presupposes necessarily a knowledge of the healthy 
state and function of an organ. Otherwise we could not 
judge accurately of the deviations from health, neither 
could we understand the changes which have been occa- 
sioned by disease. And never can pathological researches, 
as to the brain, be carried out and perfected, till the phys- 
iology of all its parts is thoroughly comprehended. This 
knowledge is indispensable, in order to make proper 
observations, and to establish general principles in pathol- 
ogy. First, if we were perfectly acquainted with the 
functions of every distinct portion of the brain we should 



278 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

then know precisely what parts to examine in case of dis- 
ease, and should thus be far more likely to discover the 
morbid derangements in function, or the nice changes in 
structure, that may exist. Secondly, the various parts of 
the brain sustain very intimate and important relations to 
each other in the performance of their functions, including 
muscular motion, sensation, and mental operations. Now, 
these several relations and connections must first be under- 
stood in a healthy state, before we clearly perceive the 
causes or effects of diseases in all parts of such a com- 
plicated viscus. Thirdly, the brain is subject to a great 
variety of affections, where no indications or traces of 
change in organization have ever yet been discovered by 
the best pathologists. Whether this difficulty arises from 
the extreme delicacy of its texture, or the want of more 
perfect instruments for making the examination, it is 
unnecessary here to decide. But it frequently happens, 
as is rendered evident by external symptoms, that very 
great functional derangement actually exists, and accord- 
ing to all analogy, there is every reason to believe that 
some change in physical structure must either have pre- 
ceded, or been occasioned by, this derangement. Now, a 
thorough knowledge of the functions of the brain, embrac- 
ing the various kinds of motion and sensation, as well as 
mental manifestations, will not only incite, but enable us 
to recognize far more accurately, the kind and degree of 
deviations in these, from a state of health. We may thus, 
by continuing this mode of inquiry and examination, be 
able to detect changes in organization which have hitherto 
entirely escaped the closest scrutiny of pathologists. 
Hence we see that a knowledge of physiology must pre- 
cede that of pathology, and that mental philosophy sus- 
tains, in this respect, also a most intimate and important 
relation to medicine. 

Practice of Medicine '.—Aside from good natural abilities, 



MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 279 

two things are indispensably requisite to constitute any 
individual a successful practitioner of medicine. First, 
he must be thoroughly and practically acquainted with the 
causes and symptoms of disease ; and, secondly, with the 
nature and application of the most appropriate remedies, 
And the more complicated the disease and difficult its treat- 
ment, the more important that his knowledge should be 
accurate, extensive, and well grounded. This is emphati- 
cally true, in reference to nervous diseases. It is stated in 
the Library of Practical Medicine — the most recent and 
popular work on the subject — that "the diseases of the 
brain are, at the present moment, more obscure than any 
other great class in the nosology." 

While there has been a constant improvement in the 
diagnosis and treatment of diseases affecting every other 
part of the human system, there has been comparatively 
but little advancement in respect to those of the brain. 
Doctor Stokes, in his valuable lectures on the Theory and 
Practice of Physic, has very correctly adduced the follow- 
ing circumstances as causes for such a state of things : 
" First, the great obscurity of the symptoms ; secondly, 
the want of correspondence between symptoms and 
known organic changes ; and, thirdly, the necessarily 
imperfect nature of our classification of nervous diseases." 
Let us briefly examine these points. Now symptoms, 
according to this same author, " consist in certain changes 
produced in functions." But we have already seen that 
large numbers in the medical profession are wholly unac- 
quainted with the real functions of the brain, and therefore 
they can not judge clearly and rationally of the kind or 
degree of functional derangement ; and hence the great 
obscurity attending the symptoms of diseases of this 
organ. We have, moreover, seen that mental operations 
constitute one of the most important functions of the 
brain — that the exercise of every individual faculty of the 



280 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

mind depends on a distinct cerebral organ ; but how little 
is definitely and practically known concerning the healthy 
or morbid manifestations of these faculties ! The knowl- 
edge that is already possessed on the subject is altogether 
too vague, indefinite, and speculative to be applied to any 
practical or useful purposes in medicine. 

The fact is, the study of mental science, as based on the 
functions of the brain, must and will, in the process of 
time, constitute one of the most important features in the 
diagnosis and treatment of the diseases of this organ. As 
to the "want of correspondence between the symptoms 
and known organic changes," this is easily explained. It 
is more apparent than real ; for Nature never contradicts 
herself. It originates chiefly from a false view of classifi- 
cation of symptoms, and this, consequently, from an imper- 
fect knowledge of functions. There may be, we admit, 
more than usual difficulty in ascertaining and settling this 
correspondence in the pathology of the brain, but a certain 
connection must necessarily exist between its functional 
derangement and change in physical structure, according 
to all the known laws which govern organic matter ; and 
we have not the least doubt but the precise kind and 
extent of this correspondence will yet be discovered and 
established. 

The third difficulty in the way of understanding ner- 
vous diseases — viz., their imperfect classification — grows 
out of the two former, and can be rectified only in propor- 
tion as the functions of the brain become clearly and fully 
understood. The classification of no science whatever can 
be correct or perfect, unless it is based on a true interpre- 
tation of all the facts and phenomena in Nature appertain- 
ing to it. That the physician should be well acquainted 
with the most appropriate remedies in the practice of 
medicine, requires no argument to prove or enforce. 

3. The Importance of the Knowledge of Mental Science 



MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 28 1 

to the Physician. — This subject may be viewed under two 
general aspects : first, as connected with the duties which 
he owes to his profession ; and, secondly, in the relations 
which he sustains to the public. It will be seen from the 
preceding observations, that neither the anatomy, physiol- 
ogy, nor pathology, of the brain can be fully understood 
without a knowledge of its functions, or, in other words, 
of mental philosophy ; moreover, that such knowledge is 
indispensably requisite, in order to understand correctly 
the diseases of the brain, as well as to perform successfully 
many operations in surgery for injuries of the head. This 
knowledge is especially important, inasmuch as the prin- 
cipal and almost the only means we have of ascertaining 
the affections of this organ is through the kind and degree 
of its functional derangement. We have no stethoscope 
to examine the state of the brain ; neither can we form or 
correct our diagnosis by the physical signs of auscultation 
and percussion ; neither is the brain, like most other parts 
of the body, susceptible of much pain from disease. 
Hence the great importance of understanding the func- 
tions of this organ, particularly of those portions con- 
nected with mental operations ; for the morbid or deranged 
manifestation of these will constitute the surest and most 
unequivocal symptoms of disease. To speak of mental 
excitement or depression in general terms, is not sufficient. 
We must know what particular faculty is involved, and 
how much it is affected. We might by such a course of 
diagnosis anticipate the very first symptoms of nervous 
disease, and thus employ remedial agents to much more 
advantage. It is not at all improbable but that a better 
knowledge of the functions and diseases of the brain will 
enable us to apply certain articles in the materia medica 
with far greater efficacy and success ; new medicines may 
in this way yet be discovered, or different combinations 
made of those already in use. 

19 



282 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Again : A knowledge of mental philosophy can not fail 
to be of great advantage to the physician in the treatment 
of disease. That the state of the mind has a powerful 
influence over the body, either for good or for ill, has been 
universally acknowledged. It was remarked by Doctor 
Rush, that " consumptions, fevers, convulsions, diseases of 
the stomach and bowels, visceral obstructions, apoplexy, 
palsy, madness, with a numerous and melancholy train of 
mental diseases, are frequently brought on by the undue 
action of the passions upon the body. ' All must admit, 
that the faculties of the mind operate as powerful agents, 
either as causes or remedies of disease. A multitude 
of facts might be cited, where the exercise of certain 
mental faculties has proved entirely effectual in preventing 
or curing various affections. In this way, a salutary and 
healing influence has been exerted upon the body when 
other medicinal agents have been found utterly useless. 
It is to this source that quackery and empiricism in medi- 
cine are chiefly indebted for success. It is by operating 
upon the feelings of patients, that quacks perform so many 
wonderful cures, and infuse such a magic charm into their 
patent drugs. How important, then, that the regular-bred 
physician should be thoroughly familiar with the nature 
and application of an agency so efficient and powerful in 
the treatment of disease ! But it is not enough to be 
acquainted with the powers or faculties of the mind, in a 
vague, abstract, and general manner — such as love, hope, 
joy, grief, fear, sorrow, anger, etc. etc. We must know 
what particular organ in the brain is called into exercise 
at the same time — what are the precise character and 
strength of its mental faculty, and what are the most 
appropriate motives to be addressed to it. We must 
understand the nature and operation of those great laws 
which everywhere invariably regulate mental manifesta- 
tions, and be able also to explain every fact and phenom- 



MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 283 

enon connected with individual minds. The physician, 
of all others, should be competent to do this to his patient, 
and a system of mental science based on the functions of 
the brain places within his power the means of obtaining 
such information. He would be able, in this way, to 
recognize at once the peculiar temperament or idiosyn- 
crasy of every individual patient, and could thus take the 
advantage of a multitude of circumstances, of which he 
would otherwise be wholly ignorant. It is by pursuing 
such a course that a knowledge of mind can be rendered, 
in its applications, a "hundred fold greater," in the practice 
of the healing art, than the world has ever yet witnessed. 

Again : The cultivation of mental philosophy is calcu- 
lated to exert a beneficial influence upon the progress 
of medicine. Our present limits will permit us to notice 
only a few of the advantages to be derived from this 
source. , 

First, It will tend to do away with many groundless 
theories, hypotheses, and speculations, which, more than 
any thing else, have retarded the progress of this science. 
A large number of the works on medicine are compara- 
tively worthless, because they are, in a great measure, 
filled with mere rubbish of theory, controversy, and the 
opinions of men who can not be considered as competent 
judges or safe guides. These theories are partly of 
ancient and partly of modern origin. The cultivation of 
medicine formerly partook very much of the manner and 
spirit in which metaphysics were studied — dealing in 
abstractions and generalities, without sufficient regard to 
facts, or the nature of the evidence upon which they were 
professedly based. The inductive philosophy, introduced 
by Lord Bacon, produced a great revolution in the study 
of medicine, and pointed out the true mode in which every 
department of this science should be cultivated, and by 
means of which most of its discoveries and improvements, 



2»4 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

for the last fifty years, have been effected. Now, a sys- 
tem of mental science, based on the function of the 
brain, is founded upon the most extensive induction of 
facts, and enforces at every step the absolute necessity of 
observation and experiment. It will, moreover, tend to 
bring into constant exercise the observing faculties of the 
medical student, and render him exceedingly cautious that 
his conclusions are always founded upon correct data. It 
will thus prevent too hasty generalization in medicine, 
and eventually become a standard to test the truth or 
falsehood of every new doctrine which claims to be based 
upon the laws of physical organization. 

Secondly, Such a system of mental philosophy will enable 
us to test the real merits of the opinions of men, and de 
cide how much weight should be given, in matters of 
science, to mere human authority. There are four classes 
of persons whose opinions in medicine should always 
be scrupulously examined, and on certain subjects they 
should be set . aside, no matter how extensive their 
experience or profound their attainments; the difficulty 
arises from the peculiar constitution of their minds. The 
first class may be characterized as possessing very strong 
observing faculties, with deficient reflective intellect ; 
these may observe, collect, and understand facts to any 
amount, but can never perceive or comprehend the force 
of principles, because they are naturally deficient in the 
powers of analysis and ratiocination. Wherever general 
principles are concerned, this class are not, therefore, com- 
petent judges. The second class of persons possess minds 
of a directly opposite character, having strong reflective 
faculties, but weak perceptive intellects ; such individuals 
are not much given to observation themselves, neither can 
they appreciate the importance, or see the bearing, of facts 
in reasoning. They are inclined to dwell almost exclu- 
sively upon general principles and abstract relations, and 



MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 285 

not unfrequently become very speculative and theoretical 
in their views. Consequently, their opinions on all prac- 
tical subjects must be received with much caution. The 
third class may be described as possessing, naturally, such 
an inordinate degree of self-conceit and tenacity of will as 
to render them blindly obstinate and wilfully set in their 
own way. They are always self-opinionated and unwilling 
to examine new subjects, or alter any views which have 
long been entertained ; and when their minds are once, 
made up, no force of argument, or amount of evidence, 
will induce them to change or modify their opinions, 
simply because they will not be convinced. In the fourth 
class we would include those who are considerably 
advanced in life, and whose habits and modes of thinking 
have become so fixed and settled as to run almost neces- 
sarily in one circle or channel. Such are the nature and 
organization of the brain, on which the exercise of every 
mental faculty depends, that it is very hard, if not 
impossible, for elderly persons to canvass properly and 
rationally the merits of new discoveries. It is true, in- 
dividuals of this class may occasionally keep up with the 
times and obtain a very good knowledge of all the pass- 
ing events of the day ; but it is rarely — very — that 
an entire revolution or radical change takes place in 
their opinions on any important subject with which 
they have been constantly conversant for many years. 
This principle holds good both in relation to philosophy 
and religion, as well as the arts and sciences. Such is the 
testimony of all past history on this subject. We yield to 
none in our respect for age, as well as our confidence in 
the judgment of those of long and successful experience; 
yet we do say, that the opinions of men passed the middle 
of life should have comparatively but little weight in 
settling the claims of new discoveries and improvements. 
We verily believe that not only medicine, but the progress 



286 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

of civilization, as well as of the arts and sciences generally, 
have been seriously retarded by giving an undue impor- 
tance to the mere authority or opinions of such men. 

Thirdly, The study of mental philosophy will eventually 
rectify or counteract the injurious effects of nosology on 
medicine. It has been a most unfortunate thing for this 
science, that its teachers should ever have laid so much 
stress upon the mere nomenclature and verbal description 
of diseases. In the first place, in order for such a course 
to be correct, it presupposes that the nature, causes, and 
symptoms of disease are already clearly and fully under- 
stood ; and in the second place, that no change can be 
effected in these, either by time, climate, or other circum- 
stances ; and, lastly, that all individuals will look at these 
facts through the same medium, and arrive at precisely 
the same results ; either of which conditions is absolutely 
impossible as well as absurd. Now, a nosological classifi- 
cation of disease, based on premises so false and errone- 
ous, could not fail to have a most disastrous effect on 
medicine, and such has actually been the case. It has 
always operated as a serious barrier to any change or im- 
provement ; it has filled volumes on medicine with words 
comparatively destitute of ideas ; it has cultivated the 
memory and fostered the credulity of the student at the 
expense of his judgment and independence, and led him 
as a physician to prescribe for the names, rather than the 
symptoms, of disease. Now, a system of mental science, 
whose invariable motto is, " Res non verba quceso" will lead 
to a more correct use and interpretation of language. It 
will teach us that words are the mere exponents of ideas, 
and should never be employed without clearly expressing 
some idea or stating some fact. It will show the absurd- 
ity of attaching fixed names arid stereotyped descriptions 
to phenomena, the features of which are constantly chang- 
ing, and so blended«with each other that no distinct lines 



MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 287 

of demarcation can possibly be drawn between them. It 
will constrain the student to observe and think for him- 
self, and not rely so much on the opinions of others ; it 
will compel him to study the great book of Nature, rather 
than the productions of men. The immortal Hunter used 
to exclaim to his class, while pointing at the human body, 
" I never read — this is the book that I study, and it is the 
work which you must study, if you ever wish to become 
eminent in your profession." 

That a knowledge of mental science is important to the 
physician in his relations to the public, may be rendered 
obvious by numerous other considerations, aside from its 
bearing directly on his professional duties. We have 
already seen that such knowledge is not only salutary, 
but absolutely indispensable, in order to understand cor- 
rectly many diseases to which the human body is subject; 
moreover, that it is of the highest importance in the treat- 
ment of diseases that the physician should be thoroughly 
acquainted with the faculties of the mind, and the laws 
which regulate their development, as connected with the 
brain. Now, as the lives and the health of the commu- 
nity — objects the dearest and most sacred to every 
human being — are frequently entrusted to the care of 
the physician, not only the dictates of philanthropy, but 
the claims of justice, require that he should make himself 
fully acquainted with all the remedial helps and agents in 
his power, which are calculated either to restore health or 
prolong life. It is also a duty which he owes to his indi- 
vidual patients and the public generally,, to employ his 
medical knowledge and exert his personal influence to 
prevent, as well as cure, disease. This should be one of 
the leading objects of every well-educated and liberal- 
minded member of the medical profession. But in order 
to do this successfully, the community, as a body, must be 
made far better acquainted with the laws of the animal 



288 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

economy, and the means of preserving health, than they 
now are. Formerly, it was supposed that man had but 
little control over the causes of pain, disease, and death ; 
some considered these afflictions as the mere results of 
chance or accident, while others viewed them as the 
visitations of a "mysterious Providence," and all ap- 
parently thought little, and practically cared less, about 
informing themselves on the subject. Now, it is found 
that disease and premature death are the penalties of 
violated laws — laws which it is the duty as well as the 
interest of all to study and obey. 

There is no question but that disease in a multitude of 
instances might be prevented — that a vast amount of 
health might be saved, and the lives of many individuals 
be very much prolonged, by a more general diffusion 
among all classes of a knowledge of physiology and 
hygiene. But before mankind will ever pay that atten- 
tion to the laws of the animal economy which their 
nature and importance actually demand, they must see 
and realize the entire dependence of all mental manifesta- 
tions upon physical organization. The omission of this 
fact, whether it has been through ignorance or neglect, is 
one of the principal reasons why these laws have hitherto 
been so little appreciated or applied, both by the learned 
and the unlearned. Now, a system of "mental science, 
based on the functions of the brain, is calculated more 
than any thing else to impress upon individuals, and the 
public generally, the importance of attending to those 
subjects which will vastly augment human happiness, by 
the prevention of disease and the promotion of health. 
And just in proportion as the principles of this science 
become understood, in the same proportion will individuals 
be induced to study the nature of their own constitutions, 
and yield obedience to the laws which govern them. For 
it will be found, by taking this view of the subject, that 



MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 289 

all possess within their own power the means of self- 
preservation and improvement, to a far greater extent 
than has ever yet been understood in past ages, or is even 
now conceived of, by the great mass of the public. When 
we consider that all the manifestations of the mind depend 
on the brain, it becomes an inquiry of the highest moment 
to ascertain what are the causes or instruments operating 
to affect its development, and what may be the degree of 
influence which we can personally exert over these 
agencies. It will then be made to appear how power- 
fully the character of every human being is affected by 
physical organization — that the degree of his adaptation 
to the enjoyment of the social and domestic relations, his 
desire and capacity of elevation as a moral and religious 
being, and also the amount of his intellectual ability, 
depend in a great measure on the brain; then, and not till 
then, will the attention of the public be suitably, waked up 
to the importance of this subject. And of all others, it is 
the peculiar province, and may we not add the imperative 
duty, of the physician to be foremost in imparting this 
knowledge, and to take the lead in effecting a result so 
desirable and philanthropic. 

But these principles have a wider range, and embrace 
far higher objects, than mere physical health or individual 
enjoyment. They have an important bearing on every 
thing which affects the interests of the human mind in 
this world, as well as its preparation for the next. The 
will of God, as revealed to man, may be found engraved 
upon His works, as well as in His written word ; and the 
laws of the former are as binding and obligatory on His 
creatures as the injunctions and requirements of the latter. 
Before even Christianity can become practically what its 
Divine Author intended, rather before its fruits will ever 
be exhibited in the conduct of men in all that beauty, con- 
sistency, and perfection which characterized its great 



29O PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Exemplar while on earth, the laws of the mind must first 
be correctly interpreted and obeyed. 

It should be remembered that these principles, though 
they had their origin with the creation of man, have but 
recently been brought to light and made evident to the 
human intellect ; and although they are considered as fully 
proved and established as the facts of Chemistry or 
Geology, by all who have thoroughly and impartially 
examined them, yet the extent to which their truth is 
admitted, or that an application of them has actually been 
made, is very limited. This great work, therefore, remains 
yet to be done, and no small share of the labor belongs 
appropriately and necessarily to members of the medical 
profession. For the studies and pursuits of no other 
profession, or class of persons, are so nearly and intimately 
connected with mental science ; this fact must be obvious 
from the exposition which we have already given of its 
principles. But aside from the superior advantages which 
the physician enjoys of studying the physiology of the 
brain, and understanding the various conditions that 
influence or modify its functions, the peculiar duties of 
his profession place him in the most favorable circum- 
stances possible for acquiring a knowledge of human 
nature. In the language of Doctor Spurzheim, " No one 
has such opportunities of observing men at all times, and 
in all situations. He alone is present during the night 
and the day, to witness the most intimate concerns and 
the most secret events of domestic life. Good and bad 
men, when sick, with difficulty conceal from him their 
true sentiments. To such a man, as knowing all that 
belongs to our nature, we unfold the most secret thoughts, 
and we acknowledge our frailties and our errors, in order 
that he may judge truly concerning our situation. There 
is, consequently, no man more called upon, no man more 
necessitated, to study mankind than the physician." Says 



MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 20,1 

Doctor Rush, " It is the duty of physicians to assert their 
prerogative, and to rescue mental science from the usurpa- 
tions of schoolmen and divines." 

But it is when we consider the great variety and extent 
of the applications of this science, that its cultivation 
becomes so important, and urges its claims on our atten- 
tion in a manner superior to all other sciences or subjects 
of human research. It would require volumes to unfold 
all its numerous and varied applications, only a few of 
which can here be mentioned. It points out the only true 
mode of education — physical, intellectual, and moral — 
that deserves the name. It has already shed a vast deal of 
light on the nature and treatment of insanity, thus bring- 
ing " joy and gladness" to multitudes whose situation for 
ages has been considered hopeless and irremediable. It is 
destined also greatly to reform and perfect our present 
systems of medical jurisprudence, criminal legislation, and 
political economy, as well as our social, civil, and religious 
institutions. It lays the only foundation for a system of 
ethics and morals — being the true exposition of the 
faculties and laws of the human mind. It is the "hand- 
maid of religion" — the " elder revelation of God," and 
will eventually become " the philosophy which the world 
for centuries has had only in expectation." 



The Normal Standard for Motherhood; 



*fc>EFORE entering upon the discussion of this sub- 
ject it seems proper that some general remarks be 
made. The title of this paper is unique in its character 
and requires explanation. The term normal implies 
that there exists some rule or guide for reference. In 
anatomy and physiology it signifies a sound structure and 
healthy function, but in medicine it expresses a high state 
of sanitation. The term standard is intended to designate a 
certain type of physiology which furnishes us the best 
possible organization for motherhood. We believe the 
Creator has organized in the human body a fundamental 
law for its increase ; and inasmuch as the organization of 
woman has chiefly to do with this law, the discussion is 
confined to her organism and agency. 

Many illustrations of this law have been given, but the 
most striking evidence may be found in applying certain 
tests to the body itself. In examining various parts of 
the system and descriptions of the same, we trust the 
whole discussion, in fact and language, will be made in- 
telligible to all. These tests have been applied with as 
much skill and propriety as possible, trusting that the 
evidence of this " law of increase" will become manifest 
throughout the discussion. 

* This article appeared in the American journal of Obstefrics and Diseases 
of Women and Children, April, 1876, William Wood & Co., N. Y. This 
paper attracted much attention at the time, and was commended in high 
terms by several of the most prominent medical men in the country. 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 293 

In considering the foundation of this law, and the 
advantages to be derived from it, our remarks will be 
confined to a few points of view only, presenting a meager 
outline or brief synopsis of the subject. As the field of 
inquiry is comparatively new, and but little can be gleaned 
from medical works bearing directly on the subject, we 
would bespeak, in its discussion, the charitable considera- 
tion of the reader. 

If the production of offspring is a primary design in the 
organization of woman, upon what particular type of devel- 
opment is the law found to operate best, or in its highest 
degree ? That there is a difference, a wide difference, in the 
fertility of women, must be admitted ; a difference, physio- 
logically,^ the susceptibility to conception, in the effects 
of pregnancy, in the ease and safety of delivery, in the 
physical qualities for nursing, in the constitutional healthi- 
ness of offspring. In what, then, does this difference con- 
sist ? Can it be confined wholly to the reproductive organs, 
or to the pelvic region alone ? To settle the question we 
naturally seek some standard to which we may appeal ; 
and both Nature and analogy would lead us to the con- 
clusion that such a standard or model certainly exists 
somewhere, and that we shall not seek for it in vain. 
Reasoning a priori, we should naturally infer that it 
would be found in the highest type or most perfect organ- 
ization in structure and function ; for such are the nature, 
importance, and complication of forces required in propa- 
gation, that, for its successful results, it seems to demand 
the aid of every part of the system. This is certainly the 
first, the highest, and the most important law in the whole 
animal economy. 

If we study the operations of Nature in the framing and 
government of organic bodies, we never find great prin- 
ciples or laws based upon any particular parts of the 
system or class of organs, neither upon inferior or 



294 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

imperfect structures. All the primary laws of Nature and 
the fundamental principles of science are exemplified in, 
and illustrated by, models of faultless forms and full 
development. The laws that govern the human system 
can not be an exception to this rule. If Nature has 
established such a law of propagation, it is of the highest 
importance that it be known and understood. While the 
recognition and knowledge of it would be fraught with 
the greatest possible interest and benefit to the com- 
munity at large, it must prove of incalculable value to the 
medical profession. The law here proposed will be found, 
we believe, to rest, not upon mere theory or vague specula- 
tion, but upon positive facts ; and, if so, to lead, in the 
broadening of our knowledge and our researches, to results 
of a practical and valuable character. 

While many facts and arguments may be deduced from 
the general principles of physiology in favor of such a 
law, there are four distinct points of view, around which 
they may properly be gathered, and, in this way, be brought 
out and illustrated in a clearer and more forcible manner. 
These points are: The pregnant state ; the mechanism of 
labor ; the qualifications of a nurse, and the character of 
offspring. If there is a general law of propagation, a 
normal standard in the organization of woman, based upon 
the principles of physiology, it will certainly aid us to a 
better understanding and knowledge of those important 
changes through which she must pass in child-bearing. 
Let us then briefly review the leading facts or phenomena 
in each of these changes, and see what lessons they teach. 

One of the most eventful and trying changes the human 
system can possibly pass through is that of 

PREGNANCY. 

This state causes many physical changes — some simple 
and safe, others complicated and occasionally dangerous. 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 295 

The primary changes can not properly be considered 
actual disease, but rather functional derangements. In 
works treating of diseases of women we generally find a 
long chapter, headed "Diseases of Pregnancy," discussing 
from forty to fifty distinct complaints arising from this 
source. But pregnancy in itself can not be considered 
strictly a morbid or diseased state, inasmuch as propaga- 
tion, in its normal effects, must harmonize with the 
principles of physiology. Montgomery, one of the most 
distinguished writers on this subject, makes this signifi- 
cant remark : " If, with a few, pregnancy has deserved 
the name of a nine months' malady, fully an equal number 
suffer little or no inconvenience, and with some it is a 
period of decided improvement in health ; moreover it 
appears, from all experiences, that women who bear chil- 
dren generally enjoy more even health, and are less 
disposed to disease, than those who lead a life of celibacy, 
or who, having married, remain unfruitful." Now, why 
should there be this difference ? Why should some women 
suffer so much from the pregnant state ; others so little, 
and others still improve by it in their health permanently ? 
It may be said this depends upon differences in constitu- 
tion — the pregnant state, in one sense, agrees with the 
constitution of some women, but disagrees with that of 
others. What, then, is that agreement ; what is the 
type or character of those constitutions with which the 
pregnant state harmonizes ? Is there not some law or 
standard by which these can be tested or explained ? In 
the very nature of things there must be, in these matters, 
the observance or violation of law. Such changes can not 
come from chance. 

Every experienced physician knows full well that there 
is a great difference in women as to the effects of preg- 
nancy, and that these effects are various and occasionally 
very marked. Sometimes the change may affect this organ 



296 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

— sometimes that ; and again, almost every organ in the 
system becomes more or less affected. In some cases the 
very first stage of this change operates unfavorably ; it 
may induce a little nausea or slight headache, or it may re- 
sult in the most violent inflammation or convulsions. 
While some women may be benefited in their health 
from the change, and their constitutions actually improved 
by child-bearing, with others it is the commencement of 
suffering and disease, resulting in impaired health and 
not unfrequently a broken-down constitution. Now why 
should there be these differences, why these disturbances ? 
What are the causes, the constitutional weaknesses, the 
particular predispositions ? If propagation is physiologi- 
cally a normal function of woman, why these pathological 
changes ? What laws have been violated ? And why 
should there be such a marked relation or sympathy be- 
tween this change in the reproductive organs and other 
parts of the body ? The very fact that one organization 
is found more favorable for child-bearing than another, 
implies that there is somewhere a normal standard; and, 
if so, let this change or improvement be carried to a 
standard of organization where the least bad effects pos- 
sible arise from the pregnant state. 

Let us make an application of this principle to different 
types or kinds of organization. In tracing out the effects 
of the pregnant state, we find some difficulty, from the 
fact that by this change in the uterus it works in three 
ways — by attraction, by sympathy, and gradually by 
mechanical pressure. One of its effects is to change the 
circulation and the direction of the nutritive force. Thus, 
where in certain parts of the system there has been over- 
action or excessive excitability, perhaps a strong predis- 
position to, if not the actual existence of, disease, the 
pregnant state, in changing the circulation by withdrawing 
from these organs a certain amount of blood and nutrition, 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 297 

actually improves the health, and in some instances un- 
doubtedly prolongs life. Here an attempt is made by a 
natural law to correct weaknesses and restore health, or in 
other words, to bring about a more even balance or better 
harmony of action in the whole organization. 

There are other cases where the weaknesses or excesses 
are so great, or the disease has been carried so far, that 
pregnancy makes the attempt to change this state of or- 
ganization and not only fails in so doing, but perhaps in- 
directly aggravates the difficulty. In all those cases, how- 
ever, where the health of women is improved by preg- 
nancy, it is accomplished, we believe, by so changing the 
current of the vital forces of the system as to bring about 
a more equal circulation, a better balance of organization, 
as well as harmony of function throughout the whole body. 
What, then, is the inference, or what lesson does this class' 
of facts teach ? Is it not clearly this : that the better and 
more evenly balanced the structure of the whole body is, 
and the more perfect the action of its machinery, the less 
disturbance will be produced by pregnancy, and the less 
harm or inconvenience result from it ? 

Let us look at different types of organization. The more 
nervous and sensitive a person is, the greater and more 
marked is the effect of pregnancy. In such cases, gener- 
ally, the change is sooner discovered, and the signs or in- 
dications arising from it are more decided and positive. 
In some cases, where there is a great preponderance of 
the nervous temperament, pregnancy, by changing and 
equalizing the action of the nervous system, may improve 
the general health and constitution. In other cases it may 
increase and intensify the nervous activity or excitability, 
and thus affect, more or less, the disposition and temper 
of the individual. Now and then a case occurs where 
pregnancy has a singular effect upon a nervous tempera- 
ment, to disturb and excite the patient, and sometimes 
20 



290 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

even cause mental derangement. In all such cases, if the 
exact physiology and pathology of the brain and ner- 
vous system could be ascertained, we should find some 
peculiar sympathy in the relations of the nervous system, 
or some singular idiosyncrasy of organization, in these 
persons. But such cases do not often occur and are ex- 
ceptions to the general rule. Such changes of conduct or 
exhibitions of character do not occur without a cause ; 
and when the cause can be ascertained and satisfactorily 
explained, instead of conflicting with, or furnishing evi- 
dence against, general laws or principles, the history and 
explanation will rather serve to confirm and strengthen 
the laws. 

There are many slight disturbances occasioned by preg- 
nancy in the action of the stomach, bowels, heart, lungs, 
and nervous system, which, so far as they prove any thing, 
show a well-balanced organization in those cases, and also 
that no marked weaknesses, defects or disease existed. 
But occasionally the stomach is greatly disturbed, which 
leads to serious and dangerous disease. A careful ex- 
amination into such cases will show, we believe, a re- 
markable sympathy, or sensitiveness, between the state of 
the stomach and the action of the uterus or other organs. 
It may show, too, that the individual had suffered more or 
less, for a long time previous, from dyspepsia or indiges- 
tion. 

Sometimes great physical changes are occasioned by the 
pregnant state : the woman, occasionally losing flesh and 
strength, continues to waste away till she can scarcely go 
through the regular period of gestation, the nutrition 
going mostly to the child, and the whole change being 
caused by some defective or unnatural action of the diges- 
tive organs ; but, more often, the woman gains flesh and 
strength, becoming plethoric, and, as it may be said, cor- 
pulent. In such cases, the stomach and digestive organs 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 299 

act too vigorously, — manufacture too much nutrition and 
blood, certainly for the mother, though perhaps at the ex- 
pense, somewhat of the child. This change is decidedly 
unfavorable, resulting not unfrequently in convulsions or 
violent inflammation. The causes of such a change are 
not easy always to understand, but indicate that there 
must have been some radical defect in the organization, or 
something wrong in the habits of the individual. 

Sometimes the liver and kidneys are so affected by 
pregnancy as to change the quality of the blood, resulting 
in anasarca, thereby enhancing the danger of the con- 
dition, and sometimes resulting in loss of life. In some 
cases, it is thought that pregnancy, by sympathy or by 
some singular influence upon those organs connected with 
the process of digestion, produces albuminaria, causing 
most dangerous convulsions, and, in some instances, 
resulting fatally. This disease, whether caused wholly by 
the pregnant state or not, is one of the most obscure and 
dangerous of all diseases. It is not easy to trace out its 
exact relation to pregnancy, or to describe just what 
pathological changes had taken place in its preliminary 
stage. 

Future researches in pathology wil] undoubtedly explain 
these causes and changes — and, we are confident, they will 
also show that there were some conditions in the organ- 
ization, or in the habits and health of the individual, ex- 
isting prior to pregnancy, predisposing to this disease, so 
that this state of the system operated only as an exciting 
cause. As yet pathological inquiries have not been car- 
ried far enough in this direction ; but, when thoroughly 
prosecuted, we believe that they will show that the sad 
results of this morbific state or diathesis may be in a 
great measure obviated, and perhaps show that it is not 
chargeable to pregnancy alone. 

There is another class of complaints, arising from preg- 



300 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

nancy, caused by mechanical pressure, interfering with 
the circulation, especially in the lower extremities ; and 
sometimes this pressure operates unfavorably upon the 
natural action of the bowels and stomach, as well as upon 
the functions of the liver, heart, and lungs. This result of 
the pregnant state can not well be obviated, or much re- 
lieved by any mechanical treatment, as it arises from a 
want of proper development of the whole body, or from 
the too close relations of the internal organs, one to 
another. The disturbances from this source are more 
numerous, and their results more serious, we believe, than 
are generally supposed. 

Again : Is there not a wide difference in the effects of 
pregnancy as found in different classes, nations, and 
races ? Are they not, as a whole, more marked and 
serious among the higher classes of society than the 
lower ; in cities, than rural districts ; and less striking and 
troublesome still among women living even in a semi- 
civilized and barbarous state ? In fact, wherever the 
female organization is the most perfectly developed in 
all parts, and the functions of every organ are performed 
in accordance with its own inherent laws, are not the 
diseases of pregnancy the least marked and serious ? 

Now in all these changes and diseases, a careful investi- 
gation will show that, in case there were always a well-bal- 
anced organization and a healthy performance of the func- 
tions of the internal organs, we should have few diseases 
arising from the pregnant state. And all these complaints 
are found to diminish in number and severity, just in pro- 
portion as we find organizations approximating to more 
perfect standards. If, therefore, propagation is the normal 
state of woman ; and the more perfect her organization is, 
anatomically and physiologically, the less are the disturb- 
ances or diseases of pregnancy, — it certainly points to the 
fact, or affords evidence, that there exists in Nature what 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 3OI 

may be denominated a general law of propagation, based 
upon such standards of the system. 

For a proper understanding of this law, it is highly 
important to bear constantly in mind, not only the striking 
differences in female organization, but to notice particu- 
larly the great changes it has undergone in different 
races and at successive periods of time. This fact will 
appear more obvious in the consideration of the next step 
or process in the development of the law, viz: 

LABOR. 

That there are wide differences among women, in the 
ease and safety with which they go through this process, 
all will admit. Now if this process of labor or delivery is 
natural to woman, is normal physiologically, why is it 
attended frequently with so much pain and difficulty, and 
with danger to life ? In no other department of the animal 
economy, where the laws of Nature, in a normal state, are 
observed, do we find such pain, distress, and suffering. 
Do not these symptoms, therefore, indicate that the laws 
of organic beings, or the designs of Nature, have been in 
some way violated or perverted ? It is true, some women 
go through the process without much suffering or loss of 
strength, while to others are allotted nights and days of 
pain, anguish, and distress ; and it would seem that the 
latter class constitute, at present, the exception to the 
general rule. Teachers and writers on this subject have 
taken great pains to ascertain and describe what were the 
causes of so much difficulty and suffering in confinement, 
and to inquire what human means or resources of art 
could be employed to remove these difficulties and assist 
Nature in this work. To this end the anatomy and phys- 
iology of the pelvis have been carefully studied : the 
relations each part sustains to this process, — what were 
the precise functions of the uterus, — what should be the 



302 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

presentation of the child, — what obstructions, points of 
resistance, etc., existed. 

No part of the body, probably, has been more carefully 
studied than that of the female pelvis, and no organs in 
the whole system perform such important functions as 
those located in this region. For better understanding 
and treatment, parturition has been divided into different 
stages, and its phenomena classified — such as natural and 
protracted, tedious and laborious, difficult and complicated 
labors, etc. etc. Special attention has been given to 
difficulties attending labor, such as position or wrong pre- 
sentation of the child, the disproportion between its head 
and the pelvis of its mother, the imperfect and irregular 
action of the uterus, the rigidity of the os uteri and the 
soft parts, the necessity of using instruments, the danger 
from exhaustion, convulsions, hemorrhage, etc. These 
are the points or sources of pain, distress, suffering, and 
danger. In these eccentric or extreme organizations the 
greater are these marked peculiarities of the system, and 
where we can encounter a large part of the difficulties in 
obstetrics ; and the wider these divergences go, in any one 
direction, or the more marked these peculiarities are, the 
greater these difficulties. On the other hand, the nearer 
we approach a sound, well-balanced organization in all its 
parts, the greater the ease and safety in delivery. Every 
physician occasionally finds patients that go through this 
process with comparatively little trouble or difficulty. We 
find also among women all manner of differences in the 
process of labor ; and these depend mainly upon the kind 
or type of organization, together with the habits and 
health of the individual. Now, why these differences, 
why these peculiarities ? Are they not deviations, more 
or less, from a perfect standard of organization ; or in 
other words, are they not to a great extent abnormal ? Are 
they not the effects or penalties of a law violated, or the 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 303 

result of an artifical — in some respects, an unnatural — 
life ? 

If a test or direct application of the principles of physi- 
ology be here made, it may throw some light upon the 
subject. Should any class of organs, or some one tem- 
perament, such as the nervous, sanguine, or lymphatic, 
greatly predominate, its effects as a whole will in parturi- 
tion be found unfavorable. If there is an undue predomi- 
nance of the nervous system, there will exist far greater 
sensitiveness or susceptibility to pain ; and the process of 
labor may produce such a shock upon the brain and the 
nerves as to render recovery doubtful, if not impossible ; 
if there is an excess of the sanguine temperament, there 
will probably ensue a greater strain upon the action of 
the heart, and sudden change in the circulation of the 
blood, with increased danger of hemorrhage and inflamma- 
tion. If the lymphatic temperament abounds, there is a 
sluggish state of the system, a lack of force and regularity 
in the contractions of the uterus, such a deficiency in 
general vitality and strength as to render parturition 
tedious, if not sometimes dangerous, from exhaustion. If 
the muscular tissue greatly predominates in the system, 
then we find, with violent pains, powerful resistance and 
rigidity of all the soft parts. It may be, these defects or 
peculiarities of organization will not show themselves so 
much in pain and difficulty of delivery, but their effects 
may become more manifest upon the system afterwards, 
or upon the character of the offspring. 

There is a physiological condition or principle involved 
in labor, that is not, we believe, properly considered. We 
refer to a union or relation of forces in Nature, so that all 
parts of the system should act in harmony with each 
other, and in one single direction, when the object to be 
accomplished requires it. This principle in the study and 
practice of obstetrics has been, if we are not mistaken, 



304 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

very much overlooked. Such are the nature and object of 
propagation in importance and magnitude, that we should 
expect aid from every part of the system, from every 
tissue, nerve, tendon, and muscle. Parturition is certainly 
one of the most important and complicated processes 
in the fulfilment of the law. Now, while certain 
organs are called on to perform their natural functions, 
there should be no conflict or resistance from the action of 
any other part or class of organs. But in an imperfectly 
developed and unevenly balanced body, with a want of 
harmony in the action of all parts, it is difficult, if not im- 
possible, to obtain a union or conjunction of all the forces 
of Nature in the most favorable manner. If the organiza- 
tion of woman, as found, is a deviation from the normal, 
perfect standard, it could not be expected that all the 
forces of Nature or the whole organism would aid in the 
process of labor so favorably, or to the same extent, as 
they would in a perfectly healthy or normal state. Hence, 
in considering the causes of pain, the difficulties attend- 
ing delivery, the force and relations of the whole system 
should be taken into account, and our attention should not 
be confined wholly to the pelvic region. It should be 
borne in mind, too, that we are dealing with imperfect 
organizations, where general law can not be fully applied. 

There is another class of facts that have an important 
bearing upon the subject. It has been remarked that 
there are not only wide differences among women as to 
pain and difficulty in parturition, but there are some 
women, in every community, who suffer comparatively 
little at child-birth. Now, a careful examination into the 
structure and fun ctions of the whole organism of such 
women, we venture to assert, will show few excesses or 
defects, but on the contrary, unusually well-balanced, 
sound, and healthy conditions in every part and organ. 

Now let this same principle be borne in mind, as ap- 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 305 

plied to different classes, races, localities, and states of 
society. It may be difficult to collect here facts upon so 
large a scale, or to institute such comparisons, as would 
settle any general laws or principles ; but still information 
may, in this way, be gleaned, that will throw much light 
on the subject. One general fact is very obvious : from 
medical writers and travellers we learn that women, living 
in what is termed a state of Nature, suffer comparatively 
but little pain or trouble in parturition ; whereas all 
history testifies that this pain and suffering increases just 
about in proportion as civilization advances. Thus, in 
what may be considered a high state of civilization and 
refinement, not only more pain and distress are attendant 
on parturition, but increased difficulty and danger. 

Among the North-American Indians, the inhabitants of 
Greenland, of Labrador, of the South Sea Islands, and 
among various classes in South America, of the numerous 
tribes of Africa and South-eastern Asia, child-bearing, we 
are informed, is accompanied at the present day with but 
little suffering or difficulty. There are undoubtedly in- 
dividual cases in all these countries attended with distress 
and danger, but then these are the exceptions. In this 
general statement we do not deem it necessary to go into 
details of evidence by giving facts, making quotations from 
different writers, or furnishing various kinds of evidence. 
Many writers on obstetrics admit the correctness of 
these statements ; in fact, they are nowhere called in 
question.* Now why should there exist these distinctions 

* It is more than probable that pain and difficulty in parturition are 
artificial, and are the consequences of civilization and refinement. For the 
human constitution, when not under the influence of these causes, will, 
cceteris paribus, be found capable of meeting and overcoming without any 
difficulty the ordinary changes produced by gestation and delivery. Of this 
abundant proof might be given ; for the female savage, wherever found, 
whether under the scorching heat of an African sun or beneath the rigorous 
sky of the unfriendly Labrador, brings forth her young without the assistance, 



306 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

or differences in pain, suffering, and danger attending a 
process that is considered a natural, normal condition or 
function of physiology ? In a primitive state of society, 
among people living in a plain, simple manner, with habits 
rude and uncultivated, we find but little distress or trouble 
attending propagation ; but in society advanced in civili- 
zation, refinement, and culture, we find much difficulty, 
and not unfrequently danger, attending the fulfilment of 
this law ; and the higher the degree, or the more advanced 
the state of this civilization, the more painful and hazard- 
ous are the chances. The question returns upon us, Why 
this difference ? What are its causes ? Are they neces- 
sary? Can they be explained? Can any thing be done to 
modify or to remove them ? The inquiry naturally arises, 
What is the physiology of women living in the countries 
referred to, where the law of propagation is so easily 
complied with ? May there not be found among them a 
better-developed physical systems, more evenly balanced in 
all its parts or organs, a greater harmony in the perform- 
ance of all their functions, especially in reference to what 
may be termed the primary laws of Nature? Writers 
admit that there may be found, at the same time, indi- 
vidual cases of women living in these countries subjected 
to great suffering and difficulty in parturition, and some- 
times danger in the process or from its effects. 

of an accoucheur or midwife ; but the reverse of this almost universally 
obtains among the females of the civilized world. These differences are 
most probably occasioned by the changes produced on the human constitu- 
tnio by civilization and refinement. 

The mischiefs derived from the sources just mentioned are found to consist 
in the disposition to, or existence of, diseases, either general or local or both, 
in those which may affect the system in general, or those which may be con- 
fined to the uterus or pelvis in particular; in the introduction and continuance 
of certain pernicious customs, habits or modes of life, thereby inducing a pre- 
ternatural degree of irritability, sensibility, laxity, or rigidity — and hence the 
physical necessity of pain and difficulty in parturition among the greater part 
of women in a state of civilization and refinement. — Dewees 1 Essays, p. 25. 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 307 

The questions might arise, What was the organization of 
man at his creation ? What were the designs, provisions, 
conditions, etc., with reference to his continuance ? 
Whether we adopt the Scripture account of his creation, 
or the Darwinian theory, so-called, of his origin, what evi- 
dence can there be found that will explain or throw light 
upon any such general law of propagation? When man 
was created, according to the Scripture account, there is 
reason to believe that it was with a perfect anatomical and 
physiological structure in all its parts or organs, and that 
there was a perfect harmony in the performance of all 
their functions. And when the command was enjoined 
upon the original pair "to be fruitful, to multiply, and 
replenish the earth," the fulfilment of this command, with 
a perfect organization on the part of the woman, it is 
presumed, was not attended with much pain or difficulty. 

But afterwards, in consequence of the disobedience of 
our first parents, the sacred Scriptures relate that the 
Almighty said to the woman, " in sorrow shalt thou bring 
forth thy children." The term sorrow, as here used, has 
received various interpretations. Some writers maintain 
that it refers exclusively to the mind — to mental acts — 
such as anxiety, fear, suspense, distress, etc., while others 
maintain that it implies also physical pain and suffering. 

Then, again, the whole transaction is regarded by some 
as a judgment or curse pronounced upon woman for dis- 
obedience, which was to become universal, and continue 
through all time, without much relief or change ; while by 
others this declaration of the Almighty is interpreted as 
somewhat conditional in its application, — that sorrow and 
pain would follow child-bearing, because the laws of the 
physical system were violated, and that the amount of this 
sorrow and suffering would depend upon the manner and 
extent to which these laws had been violated. This view 
of the Scripture narrative is the most natural interpreta- 



308 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

tion. It harmonizes not only with the character of God and 
our own moral sense of justice, but is confirmed by all the 
facts of history, as well as the principles of physiology. 
It implies distinctly that some changes would take place 
in the operation of this law, which would bring sorrow 
and suffering to woman. It is inferred that there was 
none or but little trouble of this kind in her primeval 
state. This change in the law resulted not from an 
arbitrary or vindictive spirit on the part of the Creator, 
but depended wholly upon the violation of physical laws 
by human agency ; that just in proportion as man violated 
the laws of his own being, in the same proportion would 
there be sorrow attending his birth. Tfrus, in the various 
changes and deviations from this perfect physiological 
standard, to which the human body in all ages has been 
subjected, do we find an endless variety of sorrow, suffer- 
ing, and hardship accompanying child-birth. 

There is another point of view from whence important 
evidence may be gleaned. It is well known that there is 
a great difference in women as to the amount of prostra- 
tion produced by the effects of labor, as well as in the 
length of time and manner of recovery. This depends 
much on the strength of the constitution, and also on the 
character of the labor. With some women, the shock is 
so great, and the exhaustion so excessive, that it requires 
weeks and sometimes months to recover, and occasionally 
there are some who never regain their former strength 
and health. There are others who go through the pro- 
cess of pregnancy and labor without much exhaustion, or 
even fatigue, and it is with great difficulty that they can 
be confined, after delivery, a week or ten days in bed. 
And they will go through this process ten, twelve, or 
fifteen times without apparently any injury to health or 
constitution — in fact, with scarce any loss of time, and 
not infrequently, after having a large family, they maintain 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 3O9 

remarkable health and live to a great age. Now, why are 
there such differences, such exhaustions, such slow recov- 
eries, and, sometimes, permanent injuries of constitution ? 
Why do some women rally so easily and so soon after con- 
finement, and seemingly improve, or at least hold their 
way, by every repetition of the process ? From a careful 
examination into a large number of such cases, we have 
always found that such women possessed a remarkably 
well-balanced organization, — not merely good health, 
devoid apparently of any particular weakness or disease, 
but a sound body, fully developed in all its parts and 
organs. 

The differences in size and form of the female pelvis 
in different nations, and the changes in the form and 
character of this structure, in the same race through suc- 
cessive generations, from a rude to a highly civilized state, 
are very important considerations. It is maintained that 
the foetal head also differs in form and shape ; that among 
a people highly educated the anterior lobes of the brain 
are larger, and that such change gradually takes place 
just in proportion to the advance of civilization. Von 
Franque, who has perhaps devoted more attention to this 
subject than any other writer, in accounting for the quick 
and easy labor in uncivilized nations, says : "We must not 
forget, in this question, the influence of culture, which 
certainly can not be estimated too highly ; so that, with 
increase of culture and super-refinement of customs, not 
only the most various diseases appear more numer- 
ously, but that also, in the same measure, the labors 
become more difficult and of longer duration ; that, 
especially, complications step in, which are conditioned by 
anomalies of the bony pelvis, and which are in general 
met with but rarely, almost not at all, in uncivilized 
nations." 

While we admit that the changes in the shape and 



310 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

diameters of the pelvis effected by culture, refinement, 
habits, fashions, etc., of civilization do greatly increase 
the difficulties of parturition, may not the changes in 
other tissues, or parts of the body, from the same causes, 
increase also these difficulties ? The muscular power of 
the uterus is certainly not dependent upon the size and 
shape of the pelvis, neither is the strength or power of 
endurance of the whole body. As the quotation from 
Von Franque states, " various diseases and other compli- 
cations" — and may we not add weaknesses too? — have 
been introduced by these causes, which greatly in- 
crease the pain, difficulty, and danger of parturition. In 
fact, if all these difficulties, including the suffering, ex- 
haustion, hemorrhage, convulsion, puerperal disease, etc., 
were carefully analyzed, what proportion of these originate 
solely from the bony structure ? While no distinct line 
can be drawn between a portion of these and their 
primary cause, yet if a survey of the whole could be cor- 
rectly made, and their causes denned, we question whether 
one-half of them would be found to arise exclusively from 
the pelvic bones. But it is in the matter of conception, 
pregnancy, gestation, lactation, etc., that these changes 
produce their greatest effects on the physical system. 

It should be borne in mind that the changes here re- 
ferred to do not grow out of a true, healthy civilization, 
but from an artificial type, from wrong habits, pernicious 
customs and fashions, from an unnatural culture and 
refinement, where the laws of health and life are alto- 
gether too much violated. It should also be borne in 
mind that these changes have not been the growth of one 
generation, but of many ; and thus, by the laws of inheri- 
tance, they have become greatly increased, and their 
effect intensified. 

Without going further into details on these points, let 
us sum up what seem to be the general facts upon the 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 3 1 I 

subject. It is admitted that there are wide differences 
among women as to the pain and difficulty in parturition. 
It is found that in the ruder portions of society, and 
among the semi-civilized and semi-barbarous nations, very 
little pain or trouble, comparatively, is experienced in 
child-bearing. From the Scripture narrative we have 
good reason to believe the organization of woman at 
creation was such that she suffered little pain from this 
source ; but afterwards a change occurred whereby her 
liability to pain and suffering was greatly increased. All 
history shows that, in proportion as the human body has 
changed by artificial habits and vicious practices, woman 
has been subjected to greater and severer pain, as well as 
difficulty, in child-birth. Facts also show that the further 
artificial habits, luxuries, and fashions are carried, the 
greater the distress, difficulty, and danger in child-birth. 
Now what lessons do these facts teach ? Do they not 
plainly indicate that there exists somewhere a normal 
standard, established by physiology for propagation ? Do 
they not teach that the nearer the physical system of 
woman approaches that standard, the less pain and suffer- 
ing she endures ? If there is, then, such a standard, what 
is it — in what does it consist ? We answer, a well-bal- 
anced organization, sound in structure and harmonious in 
function, in which every tissue and organ are developed 
to the highest extent that is compatible with the healthy 
performance of their functions. 

The next stage in the observance of this law is the 
dependence of the infant for nutrition upon the mother, 
or in other words, 

THE QUALIFICATIONS OF A GOOD NURSE. 

There must be in this respect, between the two, natural 
adaptation or harmony of relation. According to the laws 
of Nature, when properly observed, we find that wherever 



312 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

she makes a demand, she is also sure to furnish a supply. 
Her laws, too, when correctly interpreted, are found not 
only to harmonize with each other, but are always com- 
plete in design — never disjointed or fragmentary. Thus, 
lactation, in the natural order of things, must follow 
parturition, as much as that process must necessarily 
follow the pregnant state. It was evidently intended by 
the laws of Nature that the child, for months at least, 
should be supplied with nutrition wholly from this source. 
No fact in vital statistics is more firmly established than 
that, in order to save life and promote health, the infant 
should be nursed at its mother's breast. The ingenuity 
of nurses and physicians has been taxed to the utmost, 
the principles of chemistry and the results of experiments 
have been brought into frequent requisition, but no sub- 
stitute can be provided equal to pure breast milk. Nature, 
in her normal state or highest development, we believe, 
has made ample provision, in the organization of woman, 
for nursing her offspring. But in order to provide this 
nourishment pure in quality and abundant in quantity, she 
must have a well-balanced organization, especially a good 
development of the lymphatic and sanguine temperaments, 
together with vigorous and healthy digestive organs. The 
mammary and other glands should be neither too large 
nor too small ; the powers of mastication, digestion, and 
assimilation must not be deficient, must be equal to the 
demands which Nature makes upon them in this direction. 
If there is a great predominance of the brain and nervous 
system, and a constant strain is made upon those parts, 
thus requiring a large amount of nutrition and exhausting 
the vitality of the system, there must be a failure in lacta- 
tion. On the other hand, if the organization of woman 
partakes too much of the lower animal nature — abounds 
in flesh — if she is physically large and unduly corpulent, 
the powers of lactation here fail, the organs of diges- 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 313 

tion and assimilation may work vigorously, but the nutri- 
tion will go to the mother and not to the child. A careful 
examination into the physical qualities of women who 
nurse their offspring best, will show a natural fitness or 
adaptation for this work. This same law holds good in 
the animal creation. There, from pecuniary considera- 
tions, it has been made a special study. Experiments 
have been tried without number, and observations made 
upon the largest scale ; no pains or expense has been 
spared in devising ways and means whereby the best and 
largest quantity of milk could be obtained from domestic 
animals for the use of man. But how little interest or 
attention has been devoted to the subject of obtaining a 
proper supply of human milk for infantile life! Is not 
the life of the infant as valuable as that of the adult ? 

As to this matter of nursing, a variety of opinions have 
been entertained by different writers. It has long been 
observed that there were great differences among women 
as to their qualifications for nursing; some furnish an 
abundance of milk, some only a partial supply, while 
others can furnish but little. Instead of studying into 
the physiology of women, and inquiring what there 
was in their organization that made these differences, 
attention has been devoted almost exclusively to the 
means of providing an artificial supply. Upon examina- 
tion into the instructions and directions on this subject, 
as found in books and lectures, there seems to be some- 
thing wanting ; the obvious principles or teachings of 
physiology have not been properly expounded in their 
application to this function ; neither has it seemed to be 
considered that the laws which govern, in this respect, 
the animal creation, are precisely the same as those that 
govern the human race. In confirmation of our state- 
ment we will make a quotation from an address before a 
large body of physicians, by a professor of obstetrics and 
21 



314 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

diseases of women in one of the oldest and largest 
medical schools in the country. Says this professor: 
"Why do American born females make such poor wet- 
nurses compared with the immigrant from Ireland or 
Germany ? After nearly thirty years of practice I can not 
answer the question. That it is the fact, few practi- 
tioners in our large towns and cities doubt. Allow that 
some women with us, as with foreigners, object to being 
bound to their children's cries, yet the mass of American 
females are totally unable to act the wet-nurse with suc- 
cess." It is not three years since this statement was 
made and published. This is, we imagine, a more candid 
comparison than many medical teachers or writers would 
care to make. But it is the truthfulness of the statement, 
and the explanation offered, to which special attention is 
here called. Why should there be, in this respect, such 
a difference between American women and the Irish or 
German immigrant ? Why should New-England women of 
the present day differ from their mothers and grand- 
mothers, who found but little difficulty in nursing their 
offspring? Formerly it was a rare thing in New Eng- 
land for a mother to be obliged to resort to a wet-nurse or 
to feeding by hand. But now it is certainly within bounds 
to state that not half the New-England women in cities 
and large towns can properly nurse their offspring. It 
has been supposed, however, by some that all our Ameri- 
can women can nurse their offspring just as well as not — 
that the disposition only was wanting. But this is found 
practically a great mistake. While there may be cases, 
here and there, of this indisposition to nurse, it is a fact 
that large numbers who are anxious to nurse make the 
attempt, but fail. They find, after repeated attempts, that 
their milk does not satisfy the child, or that it does not 
thrive; that there must be deficiency in the quantity or 
defects in the quality of the nourishment. In many 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 3 1 5 

cases, after trying the experiment for weeks or months, 
they are compelled to give up nursing entirely, while 
others, depending partly upon nursing, resort also to 
artificial means for feeding the child. So impressed have 
writers been on this subject, and also practitioners of 
medicine, that the nursing of offspring harmonizes with 
the laws of physiology, and, as a general rule, proves 
beneficial to the health of the mother, that they uniformly 
advise that the mother should by all means nurse her 
child. This has always been a favorite theory with 
obstetricians, and its correctness has been confirmed by 
the results of experience and observation gathered from 
all quarters. Such we should expect from the obvious 
teachings of physiology, and it certainly accords with the 
common judgment of professional nurses and mothers 
themselves. But if the principle here laid down is correct, 
why should nursing be so often attended with pain and 
difficulty ? That there is sometimes a defect in the form of 
the nipple, and the act of nursing becomes very painful, 
we easily understand. There are some cases where the 
act of nursing causes the most painful sensations, extend- 
ing through the breast to the spine, and from thence 
through almost every part of the body. There are cases, 
too, where, after a most faithful trial, nursing actually 
disagrees with a woman and proves, in a variety of ways, 
unfavorable to her health, so much so that she is com- 
pelled to give it up for the preservation of her own life. 
There are other women, at the same time, with whom it 
agrees — is found to improve the health through the 
whole process — that they were never so well as when 
nursing, even though this process should be repeated 
from the tenth to the fifteenth time. Now, why do we 
find such a difference in the effects of nursing? Why 
should it ever be attended with pain and difficulty? Why 
should it injure the health of one and improve that 



3l6 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

of another ? There must be causes or reasons for these. 

Now, these facts as to the inability for nursing may 
be found, perhaps, more common in New England, though 
cases of this kind are not wanting in other portions 
of our country, both among the immigrant as well as 
native-born women. Such incapacity has been found to 
exist, more or less, in all countries and among all classes 
and all races. It has not been confined to any age, climate, 
or country, or to any tribe, race, or color. But formerly 
this inability was not so common — occurred only occasion- 
ally, and when partial, did not attract any attention. As 
long as such cases constituted exceptions to the general 
practice, they did not create much interest, or lead to re- 
marks or observations on the subject. The same fact 
is true at the present day in respect to the German, 
English, and Irish ; a large majority of these women nurse 
their offspring — those who can not, or do not, constitute 
the exception. But in New England a gradual change has 
been taking place : the fact has become more and more ap- 
parent, that large numbers of women can not nurse their 
children, — so much so, that in certain localities or classes 
those who do are beginning to constitute the exception. 

The questions may very pertinently be asked, Why this 
change ? Why this anomalous state of things ? Why do 
we find so many exceptions in the observance of one of 
the most important functions of the system ? What is 
there here abnormal and unnatural ? These inquiries 
open up the whole subject as to what constitutes the 
physical qualities of a good nurse — not merely in New 
England, but in all countries, and among all classes and 
people. 

It is evident that the whole matter of the mother's 
affording proper nutriment to her offspring at birth, and 
afterwards as long as its nature requires, is governed by 
some fixed laws. The last is indisputable, and there can 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 317 

be no question or haphazard about it. In the very nature 
of things these laws must have their foundation and sup- 
port in physiology. As in other organic functions, so in 
the secretion of milk, there should exist the requisite or- 
gans in good development, and these should have their 
proper share of aliment and support. 

The organs classified particularly under the lymphatic 
and sanguine temperaments must be not only well devel- 
oped, but other parts or organs of the system must not be 
found altogether disproportionate to these. In this case 
those portions of the body that are predominant require an 
undue share of nourishment ; if it should happen to be the 
nervous system, and particularly the brain — as this tissue 
requires relatively a much larger proportion of nutriment 
than any other — such an organization would be poorly 
fitted to afford proper aliment for offspring. The more 
carefully all the physiological developments or conditions 
requisite for a good nurse are investigated, the more con- 
vinced we shall be that they depend not merely upon what 
may be considered a sound and healthy body, but upon 
one well-balanced, evenly developed in all its parts. As 
far, then, as lactation is concerned, this type must be con- 
sidered its normal standard. 

That the human body has undergone changes from time 
to time, all will readily admit. Many of these changes, 
occasioned by the artificial habits of life as well as by 
the fashions of the day, are found not only unfavorable to 
female health, but must prove decidedly injurious to the 
race. Nearly forty years ago Sir Astley Cooper made this 
statement : " It is melancholy to reflect that a life of high 
civilization and refinement renders the female less able to 
bear the shock of parturition ; it has a tendency to lessen 
her attention to her offspring and really diminishes her 
power of affording it nourishment, so that she is often a 
worse mother in these respects than the female of the 



3l8 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

middle ranks of life, or even the meanest cottager." This 
remark was undoubtedly made as the result of extended 
observation and long experience, many years ago ; and it 
implies not merely a change of disposition, but also a 
change in organization, from the fact that such mothers 
could not properly nurse their offspring. Sir Astley 
Cooper observes that the proper development of the 
mammary glands is often prevented by a constant pres- 
sure. We might go further, and say that continued com- 
pression of the chest and abdomen is calculated to impair 
the development and healthy action of the lungs, the 
heart, and digestive organs, as well as those in the pelvis. 

If we consider that this compression commences with 
the girl or young woman, when the system is in a state of 
growth and most susceptible of change — that it may be 
continued for a series of years, and, by the laws of in- 
heritance, intensified, it shows very clearly how such 
effects upon the system disqualify women for some of the 
most important duties of maternity. A great variety of 
causes, other than those here stated, might be adduced 
to account for physical changes of constitution, or 
changes which might especially interfere with the lacteal 
functions. Among these causes may be mentioned 
educational pressure, constant excitement, depression of 
spirits, too much society, hard work, great exhaustion, etc. 

In the matter of nursing, much depends upon the daily 
habits of the individual, the kinds and quantity of food 
consumed, the nature of drinks taken, etc. While these 
agencies have, for the time being, a marked influence 
upon lactation, it is the particular type or standard of 
organization most favorable to nursing, that constitutes 
the present object of our inquiry. We have stated that, 
in the matter of nursing, there is a great difference 
between the women of New England at the present day 
and the early settlers. That there has been here a decided 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 319 

change in female organization within fifty or a hundred 
years, there can be no question. Formerly, there were 
more muscle, a larger frame, greater fulness of form, and 
a better development of all those organs that are classed 
under the sanguine and lymphatic temperaments. The 
brain and nervous system relatively were not especially 
predominant ; neither were they taxed continuously or ex- 
cessively above any other class of organs. Those of the 
Germans, English, and Irish who best nurse their offspring 
at the present day, possess an organization similar to the 
one here described. If an inquiry could be thoroughly 
prosecuted in any tribe, race, or people, and the individuals 
or classes that were found most successful in nursing 
their offspring could be picked out, we should find that 
they possessed an organization much alike, and not dis- 
similar to the one already described. 

There is another point worthy of notice. In all medical 
works treating of nursing, we find very few minute 
descriptions of physical qualities requisite for a good wet- 
nurse. Certain conditions are insisted upon as indispen- 
sable, such as well-developed mammary glands, strong 
digestive organs, good health, freedom from disease, or 
any particular weakness ; she must be neither too thin 
and spare, nor too fleshy and corpulent ; the nervous tem- 
perament is described by several writers as particularly 
unfavorable. We find a similarity, a correspondence in 
qualities, everywhere described — nowhere opposite or 
contradictory qualities. In fact, if we should quote the 
various descriptions or directions given for selecting a 
suitable wet-nurse, from different writers, in their own 
anguage, we should find that they correspond precisely 
with that normal standard of organization upon which we 
believe the law of increase is based. 

The evidence derived from this source is valuable for 
two reasons : first, these writers have drawn those descrip- 



320 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

tions (of what constitutes a good "wet-nurse ") from their 
own experience and observation, without any theory of 
their own, or any design of contributing evidence to 
establish a general law ; and secondly, these descriptions 
of what constitutes a good nurse come from a large number 
of medical writers of diverse character, living in different 
countries and writing at different periods. Such a re- 
markable agreement or uniformity in all their statements 
shows that the great facts or truths of science, wherever 
carefully studied and collected, not only harmonize with 
each other, but must have a basis or foundation in the 
primary laws of Nature. And further, in regard to the 
matter of nursing or affording natural support to the 
infant, it should be carefully observed, that it bears most 
intimate relations to other laws. As the laws of Nature 
come to be correctly and fully understood, we always dis- 
cover a natural harmony, consistency, or adaptation to 
specific ends. Scarcely any truth or general principle is 
more firmly established than that where Nature makes a 
demand, she invariably furnishes a supply, and vice versa. 
The existence and character of the one presuppose that 
of the other. There may, it is true, be grades or different 
degrees in the matter of demand and supply ; but 
wherever the supply is the most ample or pure, the in- 
ference or indication is clearly manifest, that it points to 
where the law of demand, in its best estate, has its 
basis and support. The natural inference then is, that 
the organization which is found best adapted to afford 
proper nutriment to the infant must be the best for 
its production ; or, in other words, must, be regarded as 
the true physiological or normal standard upon which is 
engrafted a general law of increase. The conditions 
best calculated or indispensable to support life must exist 
necessarily in the organization that produces it. This is a 
universal law of Nature, supported by all experience and 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 32 1 

observation. Let us repeat it : the physiological con- 
ditions in Nature found necessary for furnishing the 
proper nutriment for its productions, must also constitute 
the same standard of organization upon which Nature, in 
her normal state or highest development, has established 
the law of production. If, then, all the conditions or 
qualifications of a good nurse in the best or highest state 
are brought together, they furnish virtually the physio- 
logical or normal standard of woman for increase. 
The fourth topic for consideration is the 

CHARACTER OF OFFSPRING. 

While this might be considered a sequel or consequence 
of the former conditions, arguments may be deduced 
from this source also to establish the doctrine already 
laid down. It is scarcely necessary to state that surpris- 
ing differences exist at birth in the physical qualities or 
constitution of the infant ; that many are born into the 
world with the seeds of disease, with weakness, imperfec- 
tion, deficient vitality, organs poorly balanced, etc. etc., 
while others inherit a sound, healthy constitution, — 
free, comparatively, from weakness or any natural pre- 
disposition to disease, with an organization adapted to 
enjoy good health and long life. Now what makes this 
difference ? Why are some children born with feeble and 
diseased bodies, or predisposed to disease and premature 
death ? Why, in civilized society, should nearly one-third 
of all infants die, the first year of their existence, and 
almost one-half under five years of age ? Is there not 
something abnormal, unnatural, in such mortality of 
infantile life ? How, on the other hand, does it happen 
that large numbers are born into the world with strong, 
vigorous, and healthy bodies, scarcely ever subjected to dis- 
ease or suffering, and live till they die from old age ? Now, 
what makes the difference in these two classes ? Evidently 



322 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

the difference in the physical stamina or constitution of 
the parents. Which, then, of these two classes harmonizes 
best with the laws of physiology in its normal state? 
Most clearly the latter class. 

The question naturally arises, then, as far as the char- 
acter of offspring is concerned, Upon what type or feature 
of physiology should we expect to find a general law of 
increase based ? Would it not be upon one sound, well- 
balanced, and healthy in all its parts and functions, 
instead of one imperfect and deranged, possessing the 
seeds of disease and decay ? Such an inference surely 
accords not only with all our experience and observation, 
but with the established laws in the orders of the lower 
animal economy. All the primary laws of Nature, or the 
fundamental principles of science, have their start from 
and foundation upon perfect standards. The laws that 
govern the human system can not be an exception to this 
general rule. 

There is another view that may be taken from this 
point. When even in Nature we find derangements, im- 
perfections, the seeds of disease, decay, and destruction, 
do they not clearly indicate that some laws have been 
violated, that there have been deviations from a more 
perfect standard, or, in other words, that such a state is 
abnormal, unnatural ? As we study the present develop- 
ments of human nature, we find not only a vast amount 
of pain and difficulty attending pregnancy and parturi- 
tion, but that pain, disease, and premature decay follow 
their production. These, too, we find are to a great 
extent the common, uniform results and not exceptions to 
a general rule. A careful review of all the facts con- 
nected with the state and organization of infants at birth, 
with the nature and character of their diseases, together 
with the early decay and premature deaths of so many, all 
goes to show that if there is a general law of increase, it 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 323 

is certainly not based upon present standards or models. 

This topic — character of offspring — might be greatly 
enlarged upon, as connected with the law of increase 
and the designs of Nature. It has been well remarked 
that the two strongest instincts of man are : first, that of 
preserving life, and second, that of transmitting life to 
others. Now, if Nature has established some general law 
for this purpose, as she undoubtedly has, it should result 
in the highest development of offspring. It should pro. 
duce sound, healthy structures, and not an organization 
impregnated so much from its very origin with the seeds 
of disease and premature decay. It is unnecessary here 
to follow out the argument, that in order to perpetuate the 
race as it should be, there must be sound and healthy 
stock. There is nothing so much needed at the present 
day for the progress of the race, or for the advancement 
of civilization, as greater attention to the observance of 
this law. 

We have now passed in review four distinct points or 
topics, viz : pregnancy, parturition, lactation, and offspring, 
which constitute the leading stages, or more prominent 
events, connected with the laws of propagation. The 
facts and inferences gathered from each of these sources 
all go, we believe, to show that there exists in physiology 
a normal standard for this purpose. Now, if by gathering 
up all the facts and indications to be found in each of these 
stages or events, we find them all in the main pointing 
in one direction — all agreeing with each other, and aim- 
ing at the same result — it certainly strengthens the argu- 
ment, and affords an accumulation of evidence on the sub- 
ject. As the four heads above mentioned seem to cover the 
whole ground, if not a single conflicting fact or argument 
can be gathered from any one of these sources — particu- 
larly when the four heads are brought together — it furnishes 
strong evidence in favor of a general law of propagation. 



324 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Several reflections naturally grow out of the present 
discussion. The subject is altogether too large and com- 
plicated to be unfolded in one short paper; all that can 
possibly be attempted at the present time is to present a 
few thoughts and suggestions upon a thesis that would 
require volumes for a full and thorough discussion. Inas- 
much as this essay opens new views on questions which 
are obscure in their nature, far-reaching in extent, and 
upon some of which there has long existed a great variety 
of opinions, the sentiments here advanced should not be 
judged of hastily; we could wish that no preconceived 
opinions or prejudice should be allowed to interfere with 
their calm and dispassionate consideration. The only just 
and fair method of testing their correctness or falsity is 
by some definite knowledge of the subject — a knowledge 
obtained from the study of Nature and the deductions of 
facts, collected from one's own experience and observation. 

The process, by which many of the leading principles 
of science were first established, has been slow and at- 
tended with opposition and difficulty. The more radical 
these principles were, and the more sweeping in their ap- 
plications, the greater the contention and the strife, and 
the slower the growth. But whenever in the history of 
science any theories or principles have had a sure basis in 
Nature, though they might for a time be opposed and be 
controverted, they were sure ultimately to prevail. 

So in reference to the doctrines contained in the 
present paper : if they constitute a part and parcel of the 
laws of physiology, opposition and prejudice will in time 
give way, and their truth and worth will come to be uni- 
versally acknowledged. In fact, the history of medicine 
furnishes instances of new discoveries or modes of 
practice, which, on their first promulgation or introduction, 
were bitterly opposed and even ridiculed, whose truth and 
value came in time to be admitted, and which are now 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 325 

acknowledged according to their real worth and im- 
portance. 

If the views presented in this paper are true, any candid 
person acquainted at all with the laws of physiology or the 
principles of medicine must admit that they are of price- 
less value. For illustration : In all studies, whether of 
Nature, science, or art, there are great advantages in hav- 
ing leading principles or fixed standards to guide us in 
our inquiries, and present beacon lights in every direction. 
If, while investigating the facts connected with propaga- 
tion, such as the complaints of pregnancy, the difficulties 
of parturition, and infantile diseases, we can more clearly 
understand their causes and what particular laws have 
been violated, it must afford immense satisfaction, and 
might, perhaps, enable us to devise new means or agencies 
for relief. It will show what types of female organiza- 
tion are best adapted for increase, most exempt from 
pain and trouble, best qualified to nurse their offspring 
and transmit a sound, healthy stock. It will throw new 
light on the laws of inheritance, explaining changes which 
the body may have undergone in past generations, and 
suggesting what are some of the most fruitful sources of 
improvement. When we have formed a just conception 
of the original or normal standard of human nature, 
according to physiology, and keeping this standard con- 
stantly in view, — when we see the endless deviations from 
it, and find that these changes have taken place in ac- 
cordance with the laws of inheritance, — then we begin to 
realize their power, value, and importance. Within a few 
years great interest has arisen in reference to those laws, 
and inquiries are being pushed in every direction for more 
light, more instruction, in relation to them. No one thing 
will infuse such interest into those inquiries and furnish 
so valuable a guide, as the fact that there is fixed in physi- 
ology a normal standard of propagation, from which all 



326 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

these laws emanate, and around which they cluster. In 
fact, in order to understand correctly those hereditary 
influences, and trace them out in all their bearings, some 
such chart or guide is indispensable. For, in default of 
some general principles to guide us, the powerful agencies 
of heredity can not be fully comprehended, or accurately 
defined, or judiciously and advantageously applied. Nor 
does social life, or life in any of its phases, constrain or 
invoke attention to any sources or agencies affecting the 
well-being of mankind, at least physically, which operate 
for good or evil, more powerfully than the laws of inherit, 
ance. In fact, while it is impossible to estimate the 
advantages of these laws when applied to human improve- 
ment, their value and application must always be limited, 
unless we have a perfect normal standard as a guide. 

Another reflection connected with this subject is that, in 
attempting to account for the sufferings and difficulties 
attending child-bearing, and finding they arise in a great 
measure from changes in the human body brought about 
by artificial life and the violation of physical laws, the 
inquiries naturally arise, What are their remedies ? What 
can be done to relieve or remove them ? While we can 
not easily or hastily reform the present artificial state of 
society, or improve the physical developments of the 
human body, as it would require several generations to 
make any radical changes in this direction, yet, by under- 
standing the true causes or sources of pains and difficul- 
ties, it may enable us to give instruction or exercise an 
influence that, in process of time, will tend to improve or 
modify these agencies, including the laws of inheritance. 
Inasmuch as all sanitary agencies, such as regular exercise, 
wholesome food, pure air, good sleep — in fact, every in- 
fluence, mental and physical, which tends to improve 
the general health of woman — should all be encour- 
aged as contributing to, — yea, as essential to — the 



THE NORMAL STANDARD FOR MOTHERHOOD. 327 

realization of Nature's plan and design. The more perfect 
the health of woman is, the more evenly balanced her 
organization, the fewer weaknesses and predispositions to 
disease will occur, the better is she prepared for the preg- 
nant state, for the process of labor, and the duties of 
maternity. All preparations or treatment that are cal- 
culated in any way to secure a normal standard of 
womanhood should by all means be encouraged and 
brought into use. There is no doubt that much has been 
and may be done in this way to prepare the system 
for these changes, and that more or less suffering, disease, 
and danger connected with child-bearing arise from the 
want of such precautions. 

It should, however, be borne in mind that, inasmuch as 
most of these causes of pain and difficulty are the results 
of violated laws, extending back for generations, they can 
not at once be removed, and the idea that we can have 
" parturition without pain," as is claimed by some re- 
formers, — especially in the present state of society — is 
contrary to reason. No such desirable boon can be 
obtained by any " course of diet " or "rules of hydropa- 
thy." It has been advocated by some, that if the pregnant 
woman subsisted entirely upon food free from phosphate 
of lime, the osseous portion of the infant — especially the 
skull — will become very much modified in hardness, 
thus making its passage through the pelvis much easier. 
While in some instances experiments of this kind may 
have proved apparently successful, in other cases they 
have not been attended with the same result, and as to 
offspring, we believe such a course of diet must prove 
decidedly injurious. 

But attention has not alone been confined to this kind 
of preparation and treatment ; expedients, in great numbers 
and variety, such as anaesthetics, medicines, instruments, 
etc., have been resorted to, in order to relieve the pain and 



328 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

difficulties of child-birth. This is well, but these are 
all artificial helps, relieving only for the time being ; how 
much better is it to go further back and remove, if possi- 
ble, first causes ! 

One of the most beneficent features, and we might 
say, next to life, the leading object, of the medical pro- 
fession, is the relief of pain, the amelioration of human 
suffering. Whether, under medical treatment, disease can 
be cured, and life prolonged, or not — one thing is certain, 
pain and suffering, in all cases, can be more or less relieved. 

While hitherto, in medical practice, cure has been the 
watchword of the profession, let, hereafter, another term, 
expressing a higher if not a nobler object, stand along- 
side of it — that is, prevention. 

A gold medal was very properly awarded lately in Lon- 
don to the writer of an essay on "The Therapeutical 
Means for the Relief of Pain " ; but a richer and more 
enduring reward, in the thanks of great multitudes, awaits 
the advanced guard of the medical profession, who are 
laboring to expound sanitary laws and diffuse a knowledge 
of hygiene for the prevention of pain. So in obstetric 
practice : while the most protracted study and greatest 
skill and ingenuity have for years been exhausted in 
devising means to relieve pain and save human life, in 
the most critical periods of woman's existence, let us turn 
our attention more to the primary causes of this suffering 
and danger, and earnestly inquire for preventive as well 
as curative treatment. Let us fully realize that, if a 
normal standard of physiology generally prevailed, if its 
principles and developments were perfectly exemplified 
at the present day in the human system, woman would 
suffer comparatively but little pain or danger at such 
periods. 



Appendix. 



f The following extracts are copied from leading medical journals in this 
country and in Great Britain, and are introduced here, not merely for their 
favorable notices of the papers referred to, but also for their independent 
suggestions and opinions upon the same class of subjects.] 



LAW OF HUMAN INCREASE. 

The August number (1873) of tne Glasgow Medical Journal, edited by a 
committee of the Glasgow and North of Scotland Medical Association, con- 
tains an extended review of Dr. Nathan Allen's pamphlets. This review 
quotes largely from these pamphlets, interspersed with numerous comments, 
from which only two paragraphs are here copied : — 

" We have begun with the preceding extract from Doctor Allen's 
pamphlet on ' Population and its Law of Increase,' published in 1870, in 
order to show at a glance where the author's ideas approximate most 
closely to our own. This discussion of the ' general law ' of increase, to 
which he attributes so much importance as to regard it in the light of a new 
discovery, presents so many points open to remark that we fear our limits 
will not allow of our following him in detail. But we shall endeavor to con- 
vey to our readers somewhat of the scope of a very ingenious, and as we 
think, very valuable, if not in all points unassailable argument.^ 

The reviewer in another place remarks that — 

" The facts here brought to light are certainly curious, and may be even 
surprising to some of our readers. The theory adopted by Doctor Allen 
may or may not be a complete explanation of the facts, but it is unques- 
tionably one set forth upon no trivial grounds, and although we may prob- 
ably think the author a little too easily satisfied as to some of his positions, 
it is impossible to deny him the attention due to all earnest efforts to dis- 
cover truth. Furthermore, the views of Doctor Allen have an interest be- 
yond even the present age of history." 



THE RELATIVE INCREASE OF POPULATION. 

Although the subject of the relative increase of population among the 
higher and lower orders of society is one of vast importance, yet it has been 
terribly neglected. While men are discussing the great question of the rise 
22 



330 APPENDIX. 

and fall of nations, they seem to ignore the one great fact, where the men 
of whom nations are made are to come from. 

Dr. Nathan Allen, of Lowell, is one of the few who have given the subject 
a scientific attention. He has studied the subject as it ought to be studied, 
statistically; and he has discovered that the average number of children to 
American families in New England is but three, or three and a half, against an 
average of six to eight in families of a corresponding social scale a century ago. 
Population can scarcely be kept up among the cultivated classes, unless an 
average of more than three children are born to a family. This, then, is the 
great problem of the future ; it is a problem which no nation and which no 
government has yet solved. 

The most pertinent fact concerning these statistics is, that they are 
in the main true (for Doctor Allen's opponents have made no headway 
against him), and they are confirmed by common observation. Practitioners 
in New York and vicinity tell us that they find not more than an average of 
three children in a family. Among the higher classes, very few families 
have more than five children, very many have but one, altogether too many 
have none. The time must come when the labors of Doctor Allen and the 
few interested in this matter will be appreciated, when their errors, if they 
have made any, will be corrected, and the whole subject will be scientifically 
investigated. The time must come when physicians will evince a disposition 
to employ a portion of their leisure in studying the great laws of population. 
— The New York Medical Record, March I, 1872. 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. 



Doctor Allen's estimate of the importance to the student of an ap- 
propriate, well-administered physical culture, is by no means exaggerated. 
That there is a most intimate and necessary connection between the im- 
provement of the mind and the culture of the body, all will admit. It is 
now pretty well established by the highest authorities in medical science, 
that the brain is, in some sense, the organ of the mind — that all mental 
manifestations in this world depend very much upon the size and quality of 
the brain, and various agencies affecting its functions. If, therefore, all 
intellectual culture is not only dependent upon, but, in a great measure, con- 
trolled and limited by, certain physical conditions, it is of the highest 
importance, in the course of a liberal education, to understand what these 
conditions are, and to be able to turn them to the best possible account. 

There are several modes or kinds of exercise in popular use, which, 
however otherwise allowable, are open to the objection, that they develop 
and strengthen mainly the extreme portions of the body. Health and 
strength are not synonymous terms. A person may have great strength of 
his limbs, or of certain muscles, but not have really good health. It is alto- 
gether a mistaken idea to suppose that physical culture has for its sole 



APPENDIX. 331 

object the development of strength. There are other tissues and organs in 
the human system besides the muscular. The healthy action of the lungs 
and stomach is far more important than strength in the arms, legs, or back. 
It is in the general exercise of all the muscles, and of every portion of the 
body, that the system of gymnastics advocated by Doctor Allen has its 
great excellence. It aims to produce just that development of the human 
system upon which good health is permanently based, described by a dis- 
tinguished writer thus : "Health is the uniform and regular performance of 
all the functions of the body, arising from harmonious action of all its parts 
— a physical condition implying that all are sound, well fitting, and well 
matched. Some minds do not look far enough into life to see the distinction, 
or to value it if seen. They fix their longing eyes upon strength — upon 
strength now, and seemingly care not for the power to work on ; to work 
well; to work successfully for years to come, which is health." — American 
Medical Journal, April, 1870. 



LESSONS ON POPULATION. 

We have been favored with some pamphlets by an American confrere 
(Dr. N. Allen) which are very curious. In his last pamphlet, entitled 
"Lessons on Population suggested by Grecian and Roman History," our 
author quotes Professor Seelye, who asserts that, whatever the remote and 
ultimate cause may have been, the immediate cause to which the fall of the 
Roman Empire may be traced is a physical, not moral, decay. While the 
aversion to marriage and the unwillingness to multiply are mentioned as 
becoming stronger and stronger, the historian nowhere undertakes to explain 
the cause of such perversity of disposition. Professor Seelye adds — "The 
same phenomenon had showed itself in Greece before its conquest by the 
Romans. Then the population had even greatly declined ; and the shrewd 
observer Polybius explains that it was not owing to war and plague, but 
merely to a general repugnance to marriage and reluctance to rear large 
families, caused by an extravagantly high standard of comfort." " For 
when," says Polybius, " men gave themselves up to ease and comfort and 
indolence, and would neither marry nor rear children born to them, or, at 
least, only one or two in order to leave these rich, and to bring them up in 
luxury, the evil soon spread imperceptibly, but with rapid growth ; for when 
there was only a child or two in a family for war or diseases to carry off, the 
inevitable consequence was that houses were left desolate, and cities by 
degrees became like deserted hives. And there is no need to consult the 
gods about the modes of deliverance from the evil, for any man would tell 
us that the first thing we have to do is to change our habits, or, at all events, 
to enact laws compelling parents to rear children." 

Doctor Allen remarks that — "Some comparison may be made between 
the population of the United States of the present time with ancient Greece 



33 2 APPENDIX. 

and Rome." He states that — " Whereas among the first settlers there was 
an average of about eight children to a family, it is doubtful whether the 
average number of children to each family now exceeds four. It is 
estimated that the number of families having no children, or only one, com- 
poses now about one-third of all New England families. Closely connected 
with this topic is another ominous feature of the times, that the marriage 
rate is relatively decreasing." 

" Again," says Doctor Allen, " connected with and growing out of this 
selfish view of marriage, the sacredness and permanence of the institution 
sit lightly upon such parties. Causes for divorce are easily found. If 
divorces continue to multiply, as they have done for a generation past, this 
will certainly tend to weaken the relation and make it more and more 
unstable." — The Medical Press and Circular, London and Dublin, July 
31, 1872. 



PREVENTION OF DISEASE, INSANITY, AND PAUPERISM. 

In dealing with the subjects of this paper, Doctor Allen confines himself 
to the possible prevention. Recognizing at the outset the lack of success in 
agencies heretofore employed to check them, he presents, in a forcible man- 
ner, the better suggestions which from time to time have been made by the 
more thoughtful of those who have studied disease, insanity, and pauperism 
under their social aspects. 

The progress in this and other countries of systematic attempts to prevent 
the rise and spread of disease is briefly reviewed, and the many encourag- 
ing results are noted. Doctor Allen lays great stress upon the effects of 
heredity, and takes the sensible view that the transmission of diseases 
should be prevented by care in forming matrimonial alliances. He finally 
quotes the words of Doctor Bowditch, namely: " Our art of the present day 
looks . . . . to the prevention as well as the cure of disease. And this 
is to be done by sanitary organizations throughout each state, the nation, 
laity, and the profession heartily joining hands in this most noble cause." 

In regard to insanity, Doctor Allen urges that no organized endeavors to 
secure its general prevention have ever been put forth. Statistics show that 
only about thirty per cent, of inmates of insane asylums are cured. This 
is the strongest argument in favor of some attempt at prevention. The 
expense of sustaining the insane is augmented yearly by the increase of 
insanity. What can be done by way of prevention ? Diffuse information on 
the subject among the general public; impress upon the public that intem- 
perance, hereditary influence, ill health, fast living, high pressure in educa 
tional systems, are common causes of insanity, and set in motion means by 
which these causes, with the help of the public, may be modified if not 
overcome. 

In reference to pauperism, he states that in New York 62.50 per cent., and 



APPENDIX. 333 

in Massachusetts 67 per cent, is due to intemperance. The means of pre- 
vention here suggest themselves. In order to effect a decrease of pau- 
perism, education should be enforced, communities of the vicious and idle 
should be broken up, surroundings should be made better, and pauper 
families separated and scattered. But little can be done to make a person 
once a pauper self-supporting. Preventive means gnust therefore be directed 
to the young who are exposed to the influences of idleness, poverty, dissipation, 
and filth. In this way prevention will become more helpful than any at- 
tempt at cure. Prevention, too, may be made active by directing attention 
especially to improvement in hereditary agencies and to the crushing out 
of disease. 

This superficial sketch gives only a hint at much more that is interesting in 
Doctor Allen's paper. — Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, July 18, 1878. 



POPULATION AND CIVILIZATION. 

In the transmission of the physical system, the organization of woman is 
of more importance than that of man, and thus wherever we find a high 
birth-rate, or a rapid increase of population, among a people, race, or nation, 
we are sure to find healthy women and well-balanced constitutions. The 
opposite of this last statement is, as we have seen, equally true. For 
wherever a civilized and enlightened people fail to obtain a proper increase 
in numbers from generation to generation, it shows something wrong and 
unhealthy in their domestic relations, something defective in the type of 
their civilization and Christianity, some violation of the great laws of health, 
life, and human increase. — Journal of Public Health, London, August, 1877. 



REPORT ON LUNACY. 



Through the courtesy of Dr. N. Allen, Commissioner in Lunacy to the 
Commonwealth of Massachusetts, we have been favored with the official 
report for 1874. Some valuable remarks are made as to the difference 
between acute and chronic insanity. The causes are often complex and 
latent, and we are unable to determine when and how the disease originated, 
and consequently it is sometimes a difficult thing to state whether we have 
an acute or chronic malady under our observation. The question naturally 
arises, at what period diseases may be said to have passed from the acute to 
the chronic stage, and in no disease is this point more complicated than in 
insanity. The chances of curing the disease in a chronic form are very 

small We consider the remarks of Doctor Allen on treatment 

extremely valuable, and we here quote them 

He also makes various suggestions for the management and improvement 



334 APPENDIX. 

of hospitals, and we congratulate him upon his earnest labors in the field 
of psychology. He has given us a most valuable report. — Journal of 
Psychological Medicine, Oct. 1875. London: L. S. Forbes Winslow, M. D., 
Editor. 



VITAL STATISTICS. 



Many inquiries have arisen within a few years, as to what were 
the causes of this decrease or stationary state of population in France, and 
the prevailing opinion expressed, that the causes usually alleged for such 
changes could not account for the present state of things. Among the 
various works recently published on the subject in France is one by M. 
Bertillon, who, after most thorough investigations, reaches conclusions 
similar to those of Doctor Allen, in the United States. He maintains that the 
French people, as a whole, are in very good circumstances, and while ex- 
ercising much foresight in providing for themselves and their families, they 
are quite indisposed to assume greater burdens or responsibilities than need 
be. They have set up a higher standard of living than they have means to 
gratify, and they must direct all their energies and economize their means to 
reach as far as possible that standard. These propositions are illustrated by 
M. Bertillon in a great variety of ways, but the question might naturally be 
asked, What led to this high standard of living ? What should prompt in 
the French this peculiar prudence and forethought in their modes of living 
and the objects of life ? Why should they differ from their neighbors, the 
English and the German ? May not peculiarities in physicial organization 
account for these changes and differences? — The Sanitarian, New York, 
June, 1877. 



CONSANGUINEOUS MARRIAGES. 

This essay of Doctor Allen's presents a very fair exposition of the present 
state of the question in respect to the influence exerted by the intermar- 
riage of blood relations upon the health and integrity of the organism in the 
offspring of such intermarriages. Taking all the evidence bearing upon the 
subject that has thus far been adduced, it is very certain that the verdict 
must be rendered against the safety of these marriages, so far as concerns 
the health and well-being of the offspring. 

There would seem to be some good reason for believing that the simple in- 
termarriage of relations, continued, generation after generation, will exer- 
cise finally a deleterious influence upon the offspring, by lowering the energy 
of the vital forces of the system, and impairing the tone of the intellect. 
When a marriage takes place between two cousins, both of whom are in good 
health, and subject to no abnormal or morbific agencies, being the offspring 
of healthy parents, we assert that there is no danger that either the 



APPENDIX. 335 

bodily health or the intellectual development of the immediate issue 
of such a marriage will be deteriorated. But when in the parties to a mar- 
riage, or in either one of them an hereditary taint or strong proclivity to 
disease exists, then the evil effects of the taint or the predisposition to dis- 
ease they inherit will, most certainly, be entailed with augmented intensity 
upon their descendants by the intermarriage of the latter. 

It is unnecessary to attempt to account for the ill effects of such marriages 
by advocating that there is some " organic vitiation " in such cases, or that 
there is something mysterious in the " blood of kindred." All the effects of 
such unions, however singular and conflicting, can be explained upon alto- 
gether more rational and satisfactory grounds. Admitting that there is a 
greater resemblance, likeness, similarity, in family connections, extending 
sometimes to almost every organ in the body, than would be in the same 
number of families not related, and that when these connections form matri- 
monial alliances, it must have, according to thelaws of hereditary descent, a 
marked effect upon their offspring ; if, in addition to this resemblance, these 
same parties should both have certain internal organs imperfectly developed, 
diseased, or predisposed to disease, the resulting evil must be still greater, 
the nearer the relation, and the more imperfect and diseased the bodies of 
both parents are, so much the more obvious and extensive will be the in- 
juries inflicted on the offspring. On the other hand, if this resemblance in 
the two parties to the union is based upon a better-balanced and healthier 
organization, or if even one of the parties be so constituted, the favorable 
effects will be seen at once in the offspring. And the more perfect and 
healthy the organization, the better and more naturally all the organs in the 
system perform their functions ; with other conditions favorable, the 
stronger, healthier, and the more numerous will be their progeny. — American 
Medical Journal, Oct. 1867. 



BIRTH-RATE DEPENDENT UPON ORGANIZATION. 

There can be no doubt that the subject of the increase of population 
among Americans is becoming a serious problem, when we reflect upon the 
manner in which the intellectual faculties of our American women are culti- 
vated at the expense of their physical development. It is a fact which is 
probably accepted by all those who have reflected upon this subject, that ex- 
cess of development of any part of the system is hostile to fertility. This 
would seem to be clearly shown by the growing disinclination among young 
married women to assume the duties of the maternity relation. This brings 
us to the paper of Doctor Allen in question, " The Normal Standard of 
Woman for Propagation." By the " normal standard " we understand the 
highest standard, or most perfect development, which physiology can pre- 
sent ; a standard which, to be normal both in structure and function through- 
out, must be based upon a physical system evenly developed in every part 



336 APPENDIX. 



or organ, so that each can perform its respective functions in harmony with 
all the rest. This standard must have its basis in the highest or most perfect 
development of the body as regards its anatomy and physiology. In order 
to understand such a law of Nature, it is shown that there are many con- 
siderations to be looked at carefully. The health and constitution of 
woman — the peculiar effects of gestation, and the physical changes oc- 
casioned by it — her qualifications for nursing and taking care of her off- 
spring, and finally, the organization and character of that offspring. Pri- 
marily, we are shown that in the consideration of the whole subject we are to 
constantly bear in mind that child-bearing is the normal state of woman — 
that it harmonizes with her whole organization, and the leading features 
and controlling forces of her organism are evidently intended for this purpose. 
It is also insisted upon that the observance of this law has been found to be 
absolutely necessary for the most complete development and perfection of 
woman's organization, this having been conclusively proved by statistics on 
a large scale. We are shown that, if there is a normal standard in the or- 
ganization of woman based upon the principles of physiology, we are to 
look for its effects and manifestations in pregnancy and in parturition ; in the 
qualifications for nursing; and finally, in the character of the offspring. 
Again, artificial habits may not only have reduced the vital energies of the 
system, but changed the size and structure of the pelvis itself, so as to in- 
terfere seriously with parturition. Doctor Allen justly complains that in a 
high state of civilization there is a large amount of indolence, false modes of 
living, injurious styles of dress, and other evil practices that interfere, not 
only with a natural and healthy state of the whole body, but concentrate 
their evil effects particularly upon the pelvic organs, and that these effects, 
by inheritance, become greatly intensified in their form and extent in suc- 
cessive generations. We would commend Doctor Allen's paper to the 
careful and thoughtful consideration of every physician who takes an interest 
in this important subject, and think it will amply repay careful perusal. — 
New York Medical Journal, September, 1876. 



SANITARY SCIENCE. 



In an address delivered on the 5th of October, 1887, at Toronto, Canada, 
before the American Health Association, by Dr. Nathan Allen, one of the 
most prominent views of this question is discussed. 

" It is just to state here that the claims of the sick poor have been most 
liberally responded to by physicians, and that no other profession or class of 
men do so much for the poor as the medical profession. But this work of 
charity has its equivalents ; — it secures to the physician a stronger hold on 
the affection and confidence of the people, and, in different ways, tends to 
increase his business. But to engage actively in means to prevent disease, 



APPENDIX. 337 

not simply in one instance, but in case of great numbers, this is very dif- 
ferent, — it cuts off directly the support of the physician." 

There has never been any inscrutable mystery about the treatment of 
disease. Charlatans have tried to cloak their ignorance with pretense, but 
the true professors of the healing art have in all ages and countries rather 
erred on the side of loquacity as to their views and principles of procedure, 
than hidden or disguised them. Whilst it was believed that disease was 
something like an entity to combat and struggle against, using drugs and 
the appliances of art as weapons, this theory found ample expression in the 
works and utterances of the doctors. Now that it is felt that the re-estab- 
lishment of health is the true method of procedure, that view is expounded 
with equal liberality ; and as it goes without saying that if what will prevent 
or correct departures from the line of health-preservation must be better 
than cure, so by a perfectly natural process, without any exceptional philan- 
thropv or shortsightedness on the part of the medical profession, physic 
comes to be matter of sanitation. This we take to be the true explanation 
of " The Relation between Sanitary Science and the Medical Profession," 
which formed the subject of Dr. Nathan Allen's address at the Health 
Association. — London Lancet, Dec. 1887. 



MARRIAGE RELATION. 
Impelled by a sense of duty, I venture to touch upon a matter of ex- 
treme delicacy, but of vital interest. It is asserted by an American writer 
(Doctor Allen) that in certain classes of society in some parts of the adjoin- 
ing Union, for a long time past, the marriage relation would seem to be re- 
garded not as a Divine institution, ordained by God for the preservation of 
the species, but as a matter of convenience and self-interest. To use his 
own words : " The standard of living is too high ; the artificial wants are too 
many ; confinement to household duties is irksome ; children are a burden ; 
the responsibilities of maternity must be avoided or limited. Hence, in mar- 
ried life, a series of nameless acts takes place, which need not be described." 
In those few, grave, weighty, momentous sentences, gentlemen, is a picture 
of some of the chief causes of that alarming decline of birth-rate, and with 
it, and as a consequence of it, a gradual and pernicious change in the female 
organization. This, in thoughtful minds, has created alarm, lest the in- 
duced organization become permanent in type. — Transactioits of the Canada 
Medical Association, for 1877 '. Annual Address by its President, Dr. Wm. H. 
Hingston. 

WANTED: A WET-NURSE. 

We recollect in bygone days having heard a serio-comic song beginning — 

"'Wanted: a governess, able to fill 

The post of tuition with competent skill." 



33^ APPENDIX. 

And the song goes on to reckon up so many kinds of knowledge, useful and 
ornamental, such as good health and niceness of appearance, and such good 
temper and patience, amongst the qualities desired, that the young man 
who sings the song declares at the end, that when he finds so perfect a 
creature he shall make her his wife. 

This song is vividly brought to our recollection as we read the papers of 
Dr. Nathan Allen, of Lowell, Mass. Some time ago, in an article on 
" National Degeneracy," we called attention to Doctor Allen's well-timed 
warning against the causes which war against the health and fertility of his 
own countrywomen — warnings equally useful on this side of the Atlantic. 
In a paper lately published he enlarges on the same topic, and amongst 
other points, dwells so strongly on the characteristics of a good wet-nurse 
that the evident corollary is, that men who marry would do well to seek for 
these characteristics in their wives. " No fact in vital statistics," he justly tells 
us, " is more firmly established than that, in order to promote health and 
save life, the infant should be nursed at the mother's breast." Chemists and 
physicians have tried in vain ; nothing can be found which is a substitute for 
" pure breast milk." For this Nature has made ample provision in the nor- 
mal organization of woman. In a perfect woman, " the lymphatic and san- 
guine temperaments " are well developed, " together with vigorous and 
healthy digestive organs." "A good nurse must have well-developed mam- 
mary glands, strong digestive organs, and even, uniform disposition. Such 
must have good health, freedom from all disease, no particular weakness 
nor excessive nervousness." Qualities, these, not to be despised ! — and we 
must say that, although a wet-nurse may not have all the qualities of a wife, 
she should have all those of a wet-nurse. 

Unfortunately, Doctor Allen is obliged to confess that many of his country- 
women can not be good nurses, because they have " neither the organs, nor 
nourishment requisite for even a beginning." He looks upon this as but a 
symptom and a part of that general want of the power of producing and 
rearing a lively offspring, which he says marks the American woman side 
by side with her more favored Teutonic and Celtic sisters, and which 
threatens to put in a minority the native Americans, the descendants of the 
early, hardy, and prolific settlers. 

As the outcome of his observations, Doctor Allen propounds a law of 
human increase to the following effect — in order that a people shall in- 
crease, it is necessary that their organisms shall be well and harmoniously 
balanced. Excess of development of any part of the system is hostile to 
fertility. It is not sufficient that the population be not sickly, but one set of 
organs must not preponderate too much. "Families in which are found 
genius, great talents, and supreme devotion to intellectual pursuits are not 
prolific." The families of " great scholars, authors, poets, or nearly all who 
have been eminent or distinguished in any department of science," generally 
become extinct. 

In the case of the New England women, according to Doctor Allen, a 



APPENDIX. 339 

double force acts against fertility. " If," he says, " that portion of the brain 
whose functions include attachment to the other sex, love of offspring and 
domestic life — those strong instincts which center in the family and the 
home — is not properly developed and trained, but other portions of the 
brain, embracing the selfish faculties, are continuously exercised," the whole 
womanly organization is changed. "It tends to undermine. the foundation 
of the marriage and maternal relations, which rest on the purest and most 
powerful instincts of Nature, and transfer it to one of interest and con- 
venience. The relation is, in fact, already coming to be viewed more in the 
light of a partnership, as a matter of business and necessity ; or, in other 
words, to be based upon the supremely selfish elements of human nature. 
That such large numbers of our young married women should be disinclined 
to assume the duties of maternity indicates something wrong. However de- 
sirable or important may be the cultivation of the mental faculties, these 
alone never bind and cement society permanently in the home and in the 
family. In such cases children are a burden, home is irksome, domestic 
work not agreeable." 

Thus Doctor Allen alleges that in the training of some of his country- 
women the faculties conducive to fertility are repressed, whilst the intel- 
lectual faculties are cultivated to excess ; and these, as Prof. Samuel 
Haughton long ago demonstrated, use up far more nourishment than muscu- 
lar work does. The women are brilliant and spirituelle, but lacking in bone 
and muscle. They do not deserve the Homeric epithet, " deep-bosomed." 
We may observe that Doctor Allen equally denounces stupidity and mere 
animalism as contravening the law of harmonious development. 

It is very significant that such warnings on the education of women in re- 
lation to the increase of population should come to us from America. It is a 
warning which we may well accept; and young men, when they think of 
marriage, may bear in mind Doctor Allen's law of the need of even develop- 
ment of the whole organism ; and that, although no man should ally himself 
with an animal or a fool, yet there comes a time in every happy marriage 
when the brain may rest awhile, and when "wanted: a wet-nurse," will be 
the word unless the wife has her share of the most beautiful and bountiful 
part of the female organism. — London Medical Times and Gazette, 1886. 



PHYSICAL DEGENERACY. 

Amongst other elements, whether causes, effects, or evidence, of de- 
generacy, Doctor Allen notices the inordinate passion for riches ; overwork 
of body and mind in the pursuit ; undue hurry and excitement in all the 
affairs of life ; intemperance in eating and drinking ; the enormous use of 
quack medicines ; the general indifference to human life ; the increased use 
of spirits, tobacco, and opium; the increase of lunacy; the decrease of 
children. 



34° APPENDIX. 

Fashionable dress obstructs the play of the lungs and displaces the pelvic 
viscera. Connected with this weak and relaxed state of the muscular 
tissues, and the above-mentioned effects of fashion in dress, has sprung up a 
class of very grave complaints, which once were comparatively unknown in 
our country, and are somewhat peculiar to American women. We refer 
particularly to weaknesses, displacements, and diseases of organs located in 
the pelvis. Within twenty or thirty years, this class, comparatively new, has 
increased wonderfully. No one but a medical man who has devoted special 
attention to this subject, can realize fully what are the nature and extent of 
this change, and what are the direful effects. These same complaints have 
frequently been produced — have certainly been aggravated, and sometimes 
made incalculably worse — by the various means and expedients which 
the parties have resorted to, to interfere with or thwart the laws of 
population. 

From physical to moral degeneracy the descensus is but too facilis. Besides 
the inherent defects in such an organization, in not making the necessary 
provisions for gestation and lactation, the natural instinct of woman in a pure 
love of offspring and domestic life become changed ; the care and trouble of 
children are a burden; society, books, fashion, and excitement generally are 
far more attractive. The results will be — first, sterility, for no intensely 
nervous temperaments are favorable to increase ; and, secondly, an increas- 
ing ratio of degenerate population. It is woman that " moulds the physical 
systems of those who are to come after us," and " imperfect developments 
are transmitted in an intensified form." Meanwhile, the mortality of women, 
instead of being lower in America than that of men, as is the case in the Old 
World, is higher. 

We have thus far followed Doctor Allen, not with any view of giving a 
disparaging account of American life, but of pointing out that, if like causes 
produce like effects, we had need take heed ourselves. There is not one of 
the evils denounced by Doctor Allen which we do not find here. Large 
cities are the graves of our population. Women can not be developed, nor 
children be reared, in them. No one who looks at the stunted race of Lon- 
don " roughs " and " costermongers " can feel that we have any thing to boast 
of. Even our peasantry are not models. — London Medical Times and 
Gazette, March, 187 1. 



PHYSICAL ORGANIZATION — ITS EFFECTS. 

At so many points do the observations of Dr. Nathan Allen touch this 
subject, that this appears the proper stage for their consideration. They 
are worthy of investigation upon other grounds. They embrace what the 
statisticians have unwittingly omitted or purposely ignored; they describe 
many of the causes and circumstances which must, in a greater degree than 
mere relationship, influence fecundity, sterility, and the production of healthy 



APPENDIX. 341 

offspring, without which, in fact, no exhaustive or comprehensive estimate of 
degeneracy can be obtained ; and they supply a practical illustration of the 
speculations as to the perpetuation of races from an unexpected quarter. 
The attention of the author has been directed to this inquiry by the rapid de- 
crease in the native inhabitants of New England, which, should it proceed 
at the same rate for another hundred years, will in all probability extinguish 
the descendants of the sturdy and stalwart pilgrim fathers. 

That a different rate of propagation is characteristic of different races, or 
the same race living under different circumstances, has been demonstrated. 
That luxury, licentiousness, intemperance, and the antagonistic conditions of 
frugality, virtue, and asceticism, exercise, or may exercise, an important in- 
fluence over the rate of fecundity, has been admitted ; but in all such in- 
vestigations the state of the organization and of the functions of the parents 
have been singularly overlooked, and information sought for from remote or 
collateral sources. The author conceives, and rightly conceives, that the 
health of the progenitors determines, more than any other circumstance, the 
numbers, the vitality, and the state and strength of the organs and all the 
functions, mental and physical, of the issue. 

It is perfectly clear that mature and undiseased stock is required for the 
production of healthy descendants. In this sense the effect of hereditary 
tendencies may be admitted, as, while we may refuse to believe in the trans- 
mission of a specific taint, it is obvious that the feeble, the exhausted, the 
consumptive, the syphilitic, must be less capable of procreating at all, and of 
producing strong and uninfected progeny, than the virile and vigorous. In a 
similar acceptation, propinquity may be held to act by intensifying whatever 
may be most prominent or potent for good or for evil in the constitution of 
the descendants, and barrenness may thus depend, not upon impotence 
created by kinship, but by weakness and disease. 

It would appear that states of the system much less important than posi- 
tive or structural diseases, whether innate or communicated, affect or limit 
reproduction, as, for instance, changes in the balance of nutrition, as in cor- 
pulency — the relative activity of different organs, as where intelligence is 
highly cultivated by intense study, where the imagination and emotion are ex- 
cited by literature and refinement at the expense of the muscular and diges- 
tive power, and where all the appliances of modern civilization are employed 
in stimulating and thus exhausting the nervous system. As a corollary to 
this proposition, it may be mentioned that giants and dwarfs are unprolific, 
and that persons of expanded or contracted mind have few descendants. 
Excess in the gratification of the propensities is visited by a similar 
retribution, and the vicious, the dissolute, the intemperate, are generally the 
last of their line. — The British and Foreigti Medico-chirurgical Review, 1875. 



William A. Stearns, D. D., LL. D. 



[Some men live in advance of their times. Such was William A. Stearns, 
to whom this book is dedicated. The early establishment of physical cul- 
ture in Amherst college was much indebted to his efforts while president of 
the college. In evidence of his deep interest in physical education and his 
desire of introducing into the institution measures of some kind for the 
better training and developing of the human body, we make the following 
extract from his inaugural address, given Nov. 22, 1854 : — ] 

Education, therefore, may be contemplated in the first place physically. 
It involves the developing and energizing, at least the protection, of the 
physical system. 

We can not expect that all men will be like the first pair in paradise, 

— of noble shape, erect and tall, 
Godlike erect, with native honor clad. 

But we can expect a much higher measure of physical perfection than is or- 
dinarily attained. Much depends upon it, duty demands attention to it. 

Bodily disarrangement is not only occasion of suffering, but often of moral 
perversity and intellectual inferiority. It clouds and clogs the understanding, 
sometimes dethrones the reason. When the mind is not wrecked, it is en- 
feebled by it. Great undertakings are prevented, and ordinary affairs in- 
adequately performed. Bodily disorder perverts the judgment. We can not 
justly weigh and balance considerations under the influence of it, and form 
safe conclusions. It is a prolific source of moral evil. It induces restlessness, 
stimulates bad passions, and prompts to vicious indulgences. A morbid ap- 
petite for intoxicating drinks and for hurtful narcotics is often occasioned by 
it. From the same source spring much envy, spleen, and misanthropy. 
He who intelligently offers the prayer, " Lead us not into temptation," will 
pay attention to his bodily condition ; for it requires less effort to be a good 
man, with a sound body, than with a system imperfectly organized or dis- 
ordered. 

Good taste teaches the same doctrine. We admire most that which ap- 
proaches nearest its own perfection. This is true in horticulture, in agri- 
culture, in ornithology, and in the treatment of domestic animals. But 
many a man who would spend hours every day in tending and grooming a 
favorite racer will abandon his children, except in actual sickness, to almost 
total neglect. 



APPENDIX. 343 

Anciently it was not so. The palaestra, the gymnasium, the chase, the 
exercise of the camp, though intended for .the increase of military efficiency, 
promoted physical strength. The ancient ideals of perfect commonwealths 
have given prominence to the subject of corporeal vigor, in their systems of 
education. In the middle ages, too, hunting, war, the spirit of chivalry, 
secured both among the nobility and the masses a superior physical de- 
velopment. But in our country there is reason to fear that, in this respect, 
we are deteriorating. Partial deformity, the languid step, stooping shoulders, 
cadaverous countenances, are too common. Among students, has not death 
held his terrible revels in our day, to an extent never before realized ? Our 
halls of justice, and still more our pulpits, are thronged with invalids. 

Physical education is not the leading business of college life, though 
were I able, like Alfred or Charlemagne, to plan an educational system 
anew, I would seriously consider the expediency of introducing regular 
drills in gymnastic and calisthenic exercises. If agricultural and mechanical 
operations, and even martial movements, could be added without injury to 
scholarship, so much the better. At all events, I would take measures for 
imparting hardihood and the proper use of the muscular energies. But with- 
out innovation, something can be done in this direction. The general laws 
of health can be imparted, and some of them insisted on. It can be shown to 
the scholar that it is not often intellectual exertion, even though intense, 
that digs the premature graves of students. It is neglect. It is imprudence. 
It is irregularities. It is sinful indulgences. It is violence, perhaps in many 
cases innocently committed, against the laws of the constitution. 

Perhaps I am dwelling too long on this topic. But of one thing I am 
certain : the highest intellectual efficiency can never be reached, the noblest 
characters will never be formed, till a greater soundness of physical consti- 
tution is attained. 



Index 



PAGE 

Acland, Sir Henry . . 102 

Allen, Nathan, Biographical Sketch 9 

Animals, Improvement in Domestic 208 

Bartlett, Dr. Elisha 94 

Bemus, Dr. S. M 243, 254 

Bertillon, M 334 

Blackwell, Dr. Elizabeth . . 43 

Bowditch, Dr. H. 1 107 

Brain, Functions 172 

Carpenter, Dr. Alfred 102 

Carpenter, William B., the Physiologist .192 

Commissioners of Lunacy, Scotland 173 

Cooper, Sir Astley 317 

Coxe, Sir James 175 

Crime, Prevention, Right Process not Pursued 108 

Culture, Physical, Amherst College 17 

American Medical Journal 330 

Example and Influence 24, 25 

Gymnastics established in i860 — Exercise and Health, 20, 21, 22, 23 

Darwin, Charles 199 

Degeneracy, Causes, Changes of Body, Loss of Muscle, 210, 212, 218, 220 
Effects on Organization, Stimulants, Narcotics, etc. . . . 233, 234 

Physical, from London Medical Times 337, 339 

Development, Physical, Defined 57 

Measurements 59, 60 

Standard or Models 58 

Dewees, Professor 306 

Doubleday, Thomas 188 

Dike, Rev. S. W 157 

Draper, Professor 71 

Education, Early Growth of Body 27, 29 

Basis of — Physical 45 

Growth and Health of Girls Connected with 31 

Eliot, President 22, 60 



346 INDEX. 

Family, New England — Important, but Changed 143 

Children Diminished — Foreign Increase 150 

Divorces Multiplied — Causes in all Classes 157 

Objects of Marriage and Effects of Divorces on Family . . . 158 

Flint, Dr. Austin 105 

Flourens, M 69 

Forbes, Dr. John 92 

Gould, Dr. B. A 216 

Hereditary Influences, Dependent on a Law of Increase 134 

Physical Standard, Important for Hereditary Guidance . . . 138 

Heredity, a Source of Pauperism 203 

Hitchcock, Edward, and Measurements 25, 58 

Holmes, Dr. O. W 95 

Howe, Dr. S. G%, . 244 

Human Body 238 

Huxley, Professor 49 

Insanity, Prevention 332, 170 

Causes 176 

Insurance, Life 72 

Intermarriage of Relatives 241 

Levitical Law 244 

Mohammedans 259 

Visiting Iniquities of the Fathers 256 

Journal, Glasgow Medical 329 

American Medical, Consanguineous Marriages 334 

American Medical, Physical Culture 330 

Boston Medical and Surgical, Insanity (p. 332) 333 

British Medico-chirurgical Review 340 

New York Medical, Birth-rate and Organization 335 

Lancet, London 336 

Curing Disease Converted into Sanitation 337 

Law of Increase, Based on Physical Organization and Evidences . . 195 

Human Increase, from Medical Record 329 

Theories of Malthus, Doubleday, and Spencer 188 

Lister, Sir Joseph 100 

London Medical Times and Gazette 337 

Medical Press and Circular 331 

Pauperism 333 

Population, Grecian and Roman Compared 331 

Public Health, London ' • • • • 333 

Psychological, Doctor Winslow — Report on Lunacy .... 333 

Sanitarian, Vital Statistics of France 334 



index. 347 

Longevity, Law of 61 

Ancestry — Long-lived 74 

Body Compared to Machine — Normal Functions 63 

Mental Hygiene 68 

Lunacy, Report — Dr. L. S. Forbes Winslow's Comments 333 

Malthus, J. R 188 

Marriage Relation, Canada Medical Association, Doctor Hingston . . 337 
Marriages, Consanguineous, from American Medical Journal .... 334 

No Taint or Organic Vitiation Recognized Here 335 

Maudsley, Dr. Henry 177 

Medical Men Make their Mark — Leaders in Society 76 

Motherhood, Normal Standard for 292 

Labor — Differences — Why 302, 303, 304, 305 

Offspring — Character — Nursing — Defects 320,324 

Pregnancy and its Effects 294, 298 

New York Medical Record 330 

Pauperism, Prevention ._ 332 

Philosophy, Mental, and Medicine 266 

Doctor Bartlett (p. 268), Doctor Stokes (p. 279), Sir Charles 

Bell (p. 274). 
Mental Science (p. 280), Doctor Spurzheim (p. 290). 
Metaphysics, Doctor Rush (p. 266 and 276) 267 

Physical Organization, its Effects 337 

Health and Birth-rate Dependent upon it 335, 338 

Physiology, Normal Standard — Elements Comprising It 49 

Law of Health and Heredity 50, 52 

Pratt, C. M., Gymnasium 25 

Population, Relative Increase, from New York Medical Record . . . 339 

and Civilization, from Health Journal 333 

Birth- and Death-rate 124, 125 

Decay of People in Greece and Rome, Compared with New 



World 



33 



Effects of these Changes 130, 131 

In New England — Changes — Removals West 116 

Interchange, Country and City 119,120,121 

Lessons on, from Grecian and Roman History 331 

Richardson, Dr. B. W 101 

Rush, Doctor 267, 276 

Sargent, Dr. D. A 58, 59 

Science, Sanitary, History and Relations of, to Medicine and the 

Profession 86 



348 INDEX. 



Spencer, Herbert 189 

Sports, College : 262 

Foot-ball and Ball-playing 263, 264 

Spurzheim, Doctor 290 

Statistics, Vital 181 

Birth, Marriage, and Death 181 

Population — Increase, Foreign and Native .... 181,182,183 

Size of Family — Birth-rate 184, 185, 186 

Stearns, William A., Views on Physical Education 342 

Studley, Mary J., M. D., On Education of Girls 44 

Vital, Statistics, Sanitarian 334 

Statistics of France Compared with the United States .... 334 

Wet-nurse, Wanted, from London Medical Times 337 

Qualities Fully Described 338 



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